Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station

Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station (commonly abbreviated as TMI) is a closed nuclear power plant on Three Mile Island[lower-alpha 1] in Londonderry Township, Dauphin County, Pennsylvania on Lake Frederic, a reservoir in the Susquehanna River just south of Harrisburg. It has two separate units, TMI-1 (owned by Constellation Energy) and TMI-2 (owned by EnergySolutions).[6]

"Three Mile Island" redirects here. For the 1979 partial core meltdown, see Three Mile Island accident. For other uses, see Three Mile Island (disambiguation).

Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station
The Three Mile Island nuclear power plant on Three Mile Island, circa 1979
Three Mile Island in 2019, prior to shutdown.
Official nameExelon Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station
CountryUnited States
LocationLondonderry Township, Dauphin County, Pennsylvania
Coordinates40°9′14″N 76°43′29″W
StatusBeing decommissioned
Construction beganUnit 1: May 18, 1968
Unit 2: November 1, 1969
Commission dateUnit 1: September 2, 1974
Unit 2: December 30, 1978
Decommission dateUnit 1: September 20, 2019
Unit 2: March 28, 1979
Construction cost$1.557 billion (2007 USD)[1]
($2.00 billion in 2021 dollars[2])
Owner(s)Unit 1: Constellation Energy
Unit 2: EnergySolutions
Operator(s)Constellation Energy
Employees725 (2017)[3]
Nuclear power station
Reactor typePWR
Reactor supplierBabcock & Wilcox
Cooling towers4 × Natural Draft
Cooling sourceSusquehanna River
Thermal capacity1 × 2568 MWth
Power generation
Units operational1 × 819 MW
Make and modelB&W LLP (DRYAMB)
Units decommissioned1 × 880 MW
Nameplate capacity819 MW
Capacity factor95.65% (2017)
73.25% (lifetime)
Annual net output7.3 TWh (2018)
245.12 TWh (lifetime)[4]
External links
Websitewww.constellationenergy.com/our-company/locations/decommissioning.html
CommonsRelated media on Commons

The plant was the site of the most significant accident in United States commercial nuclear energy when, on March 28, 1979, TMI-2 suffered a partial meltdown. According to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) report, the accident resulted in no deaths or injuries to plant workers or in nearby communities.[7] Follow-up epidemiology studies did not find causality between the accident and any increase in cancers.[8][9][10][11] One work-related death has occurred on-site during decommissioning.[12]

The reactor core of TMI-2 has since been removed from the site, but the site has not been fully decommissioned.[13] In July 1998, Amergen Energy (now Exelon Generation) agreed to purchase TMI-1 from General Public Utilities for $100 million.[14]

The plant was originally built by General Public Utilities Corporation, later renamed GPU Incorporated.[15] The plant was operated by Metropolitan Edison Company (Met-Ed), a subsidiary of the GPU Energy division. In 2001, GPU Inc. merged with FirstEnergy Corporation.[16] On December 18, 2020 - FirstEnergy transferred Unit 2's license over to EnergySolutions' subsidiary TMI-2 Solutions after receiving approval from the NRC.[17]

Exelon was operating Unit 1 at a financial loss since 2015.[18] In 2017 the company said it would consider ceasing operations at Unit 1 because of high costs unless there was action from the Pennsylvania government.[19][20] Unit 1 officially shut down at noon on September 20, 2019.[21]

Unit 1 decommissioning is expected to be completed in 2079 and will cost $1.2 billion.[22][23] Unit 2, which has been dormant since the accident in 1979, is expected to close in 2052.[24]

Emergency zones and nearby population

The NRC defines two emergency planning zones around nuclear power plants: a plume exposure pathway zone with a radius of 10 miles (16 km), concerned primarily with exposure to, and inhalation of, airborne radioactive contamination, and an ingestion pathway zone of about 50 miles (80 km), concerned primarily with ingestion of food and liquid contaminated by radioactivity.[25]

The 2010 U.S. population within 10 miles (16 km) of Three Mile Island was 211,261, an increase of 10.9 percent in a decade, according to an analysis of U.S. Census data. The 2010 U.S. population within 50 miles (80 km) was 2,803,322, an increase of 10.3 percent since 2000. Cities within 50 miles include Harrisburg (12 miles to city center), York (13 miles to city center), and Lancaster (24 miles to city center).[26]

Electricity production

During its last full year of operation in 2018, Three Mile Island generated 7,355 GWh of electricity. In that same year, electricity from nuclear power produced approximately 39% of the total electricity generated in Pennsylvania (83.5 TWh nuclear of 215 TWh total), with Three Mile Island Generating Station contributing approximately 4% to the statewide total generation. In 2021 the state of Pennsylvania generated approximately 241 TWh total electricity.[27]

Generation (MWh) of Three Mile Island Generating Station[28]
Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual (Total)
2001 598,586 558,484 617,640 540,691 309,720 427,684 591,460 588,699 562,563 130,208 0 491,028 5,416,763
2002 628,077 569,814 631,547 606,413 622,103 575,870 609,816 609,997 595,565 619,838 610,530 633,949 7,313,519
2003 631,984 572,521 631,971 605,628 624,685 597,862 610,219 609,588 592,306 309,494 -8,042 418,815 6,197,031
2004 628,992 592,136 630,817 606,796 595,895 590,383 593,006 609,964 594,931 628,330 606,727 595,257 7,273,234
2005 634,556 574,716 633,072 603,671 622,371 590,245 606,729 606,110 590,523 431,976 227,852 633,640 6,755,461
2006 634,770 574,064 629,263 604,524 620,189 592,955 607,024 610,066 598,981 626,894 533,567 594,731 7,227,028
2007 633,504 571,450 628,411 604,807 616,716 591,972 610,453 608,744 591,535 387,453 173,525 626,724 6,645,294
2008 634,479 593,989 631,886 606,166 622,685 593,699 611,785 615,991 591,191 620,414 610,566 632,247 7,365,098
2009 632,599 571,398 627,785 601,665 613,866 593,159 610,822 607,848 593,508 438,962 -2,703 0 5,888,909
2010 132,230 564,608 571,255 599,167 558,978 586,421 604,409 594,950 568,086 621,174 607,344 625,128 6,633,750
2011 625,004 564,025 622,273 595,735 593,238 589,577 599,464 603,021 563,240 453,968 82,899 626,385 6,518,829
2012 629,556 589,831 624,849 608,509 613,382 596,485 610,350 417,839 478,175 624,454 614,324 630,503 7,038,257
2013 629,685 570,617 629,618 606,648 621,454 595,263 610,260 614,906 599,698 536,504 61,179 583,236 6,659,068
2014 629,732 534,623 629,723 608,793 614,408 614,413 613,793 616,228 598,666 625,480 610,804 630,982 7,327,645
2015 631,581 569,154 629,454 607,974 490,525 594,154 577,760 613,283 593,923 576,594 84,416 629,223 6,598,041
2016 630,503 587,527 627,463 607,175 620,556 588,999 599,964 609,354 593,371 622,807 607,486 387,447 7,082,652
2017 629,440 569,389 629,237 604,756 622,133 594,829 610,064 615,158 336,473 404,367 612,290 632,124 6,860,260
2018 633,552 571,419 630,787 607,853 614,580 594,845 611,421 609,506 594,668 623,620 611,295 632,278 7,335,824
2019 632,206 570,764 629,016 604,853 617,709 594,819 608,513 605,781 350,535 0 -- -- 5,214,196

Three Mile Island Unit 1

The Three Mile Island Unit 1 is a pressurized water reactor designed by Babcock & Wilcox with a net generating capacity of 819 MWe. The initial construction cost for TMI-1 was US$400 million, equal to $2.37 billion in 2018 dollars.[29] Unit 1 first came online on April 19, 1974, and began commercial operations on September 2, 1974.[30] TMI-1 is licensed to operate for 40 years from its first run, and in 2009, was extended 20 years, which means it could have operated until April 19, 2034.[31][32]

TMI-1 had a closed-cycle cooling system for its main condenser using two natural draft cooling towers. Makeup water was drawn from the river to replace the water lost via evaporation in the towers. Once-through cooling with river water is used for the service water system which cools auxiliary components and removed decay heat when the reactor was shut down. On February 17, 1979, TMI-1 went offline for refueling. It was brought back online on October 9, 1985, after public opposition, several federal court injunctions, and some technical and regulatory complications - more than six years after it initially went offline.[33]

September 2019 photo of Three Mile Island and Goldsboro, Pennsylvania

Unit 1 was scheduled to be shut down by September 2019 after Exelon announced they did not receive any commitments for subsidies from the state, rendering Exelon unable to continue operating the reactor.[34][35] TMI-1 was shut down on September 20, 2019.[36]

Incidents

In February 1993, a man drove his car past a checkpoint at the TMI nuclear plant, then broke through an entry gate. He eventually crashed the car through a secure door and entered the Unit 1 turbine building. The intruder, who had a history of mental illness, hid in the turbine building and was apprehended after four hours.[37]

During and following the September 11 attacks, there was a moral panic that United Airlines Flight 93 was headed towards Three Mile Island. On that day, the NRC placed all of the nation's nuclear power plants into the highest level of security. United Flight 93 crashed into a field about 135 miles west (217 km) of Three Mile Island in Stonycreek Township, just outside Shanksville, Pennsylvania, with its actual target believed to have been Washington, D.C.[38][39]

Three Mile Island from Goldsboro, Pennsylvania in 2013
Three Mile Island from Middletown, Pennsylvania in 2014
September 2019 photo of Three Mile Island and the Exelon training center and simulator building (left).

On November 21, 2009, a release of radioactivity occurred inside the containment building of TMI-1 while workers were cutting pipes. Exelon Corporation stated to the public that "A monitor at the temporary opening cut into the containment building wall to allow the new steam generators to be moved inside showed a slight increase in a reading and then returned to normal. Approximately 20 employees were treated for mild radiation exposure."[40] As of November 22, 2009, it was believed that no radiation escaped the containment building and the public was not in any danger. The inside airborne contamination was caused by a change in air pressure inside the containment building that dislodged small irradiated particles in the reactor piping system. Some of the small particles became airborne inside the building and were detected by an array of monitors in place to detect such material. The air pressure change occurred when inside building ventilation fans were started to support outage activities. The site modified the ventilation system to prevent future air pressure changes. Work continued on the project the following day. On January 24, 2010, TMI-1 was brought back online.[41]

Material handling accident

On September 10, 2021, a contractor from Alabama was fatally injured while unloading equipment from a truck. Fire and emergency medical personnel from Londonderry Township were dispatched and declared the contractor dead on arrival. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission said the injury was work-related, and the contractor was outside the radiological controlled area.[42][43]

June 2010 Photo of Three Mile Island nuclear power plant with deactivated Unit 2 located on the left.

Three Mile Island Unit 2
Unit 2 during its time in operation, viewed from the west

The Three Mile Island Unit 2 was also a pressurized water reactor constructed by B&W, similar to Unit 1. The only difference was that TMI-2 was slightly larger with a net generating capacity of 906 MWe, compared to TMI-1, which delivers 819 MWe. Unit 2 received its operating license on February 8, 1978, and began commercial operation on December 30, 1978. TMI Unit 2 has been permanently shut off after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979.[44]

Accident
Three Mile Island in background behind Harrisburg International Airport, a few weeks after the accident
Main article: Three Mile Island accident

On March 28, 1979, a cooling system malfunction caused a partial meltdown of the reactor core. This loss-of-coolant accident resulted in the release of an estimated 43,000 curies (1.59 PBq) of radioactive krypton-85 gas (half life 10 yrs), and less than 20 curies (740 GBq) of the especially hazardous iodine-131 (half life 8 days), into the surrounding environment.[7]

Nearly 2 million people were exposed to radiation from the accident.[45] A review by the World Nuclear Association concluded that no deaths, injuries or adverse health effects resulted from the accident,[46] and a report by Columbia University epidemiologist Maureen Hatch confirmed this finding.[8][47] Because of the health concerns, the Pennsylvania Department of Health kept a registry of more than 30,000 people that lived within 5 miles (8.0 km) of TMI at the time of the accident. The registry was kept for nearly 20 years until 1997, when no evidence was found of unusual health effects.[48] Further epidemiology studies have not shown any increase in cancer as a result of the accident.[9][10][11] However, almost $25 million was paid in insurance settlements to people who then agreed not to discuss their injuries in ongoing litigation.[49]

Unit 2 has not been operational since the accident occurred.[50]

The New York Times reported on August 14, 1993, 14 years after the accident, that the cleanup had been finished. According to the United States NRC, 2.3 million gallons of waste water had been removed.[51]

The incident was widely publicized internationally, and had far-reaching effects on public opinion, particularly in the United States. The China Syndrome, a movie about a nuclear disaster, which was released 12 days before the incident and received a glowing reception from the movie-going public, became a blockbuster hit.[52]

Unit 2 Generator

On January 22, 2010, officials at the NRC announced the electrical generator from the damaged Unit 2 reactor at TMI will be used at Shearon Harris Nuclear Plant in New Hill, North Carolina. The generator was transported in two parts, weighing a combined 670 tons. It was refurbished and installed during a refueling outage at Shearon Harris NPP in November 2010. TMI's Unit 2 reactor has been shut down since the partial meltdown in 1979.[53]

Post-accident

Exelon Corporation was created in October 2000 by the merger of PECO Energy Company and Unicom, of Philadelphia and Chicago respectively.[54] Unicom owned Commonwealth Edison. The PECO share in AmerGen was acquired by Exelon during late 2000. Exelon acquired British Energy's share in AmerGen in 2003,[55] and transferred Unit 1 under the direct ownership and operation of its Exelon Nuclear business unit.[56][57] According to Exelon Corporation, "many people are surprised when they learn that Three Mile Island is still making electricity, enough to power 800,000 households" from its undamaged and fully functional reactor unit 1.[58] Exelon viewed the plant's economics of $44/MWh as challenging due to the low price of natural gas at $25/MWh. As of 2016, the average price of electricity in the area was $39/MWh.[59]

Closure
Three Mile Island's final minutes in operation.

On June 20, 2017, Exelon Generation, the owners of Three Mile Island's Unit 1, sent to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission a formal notice of its intention to shut down the plant on September 30, 2019,[60] unless the Pennsylvania legislature rescued the nuclear industry, which was struggling to compete as newfound natural gas resources drove down electricity prices.[61] Exelon Generation's Senior Vice President Bryan Hanson noted that once Three Mile Island was closed, it could never be reopened for use again.[60] Hanson explicitly stated the reason for the shutdown is because of the unprofitability of Unit 1. Unit 1 has lost the company over $300 million over the last half-decade despite it being one of Exelon's best-performing power plants.

Shut down of Unit 1 can go in two possible directions, the first being the immediate dismantlement after the radioactive fuel has been moved away from the plant. The dismantlement can proceed after the spent fuel is removed from the pool, put into storage casks, and the casks are transferred to the ISFSI pad for storage until the DOE takes them away to a DOE repository. Dismantling the plant this way will take anywhere from 8 to 10 years.[62] The second option Exelon could take is the long-term storage, which involves mothballing the plant and letting the radiation decay for up to 60 years on its own to a harmless level before completely dismantling the buildings. The advantage to the long-term storage is the lack of radiation when the dismantlement would begin but the disadvantage would be the possible lack of qualified workers at the time of dismantlement. Exelon would also have to pay for limited maintenance and security of the plant over the potential 60 years.[62] The entirety of the spent fuel will be moved to the Londonderry Township facility, which is another process that could take decades to complete.[60]

About 70 state legislators signed the industry-inspired Nuclear Caucus but made no financial commitments.[61]

In April 2019, Exelon stated it would cost $1.2 billion over nearly 60 years to completely decommission Unit 1.[63] Unit 1 closed on September 20, 2019.

In 2022, Unit 1 was transferred to Constellation Energy following separation from Exelon. Unit 2 was also transferred to TriArtisan ES Partners, LLC - following their acquisition of EnergySolutions.

Decommissioning

Following the TMI-2 accident in 1979, approximately 99% of the fuel and damaged core debris was removed from the reactor vessel and associated systems and shipped to the Idaho National Laboratory near Idaho Falls, Idaho. Since 1993, when the initial cleanup of the plant was completed, TMI-2 has been in a condition known as Post Defueling Monitored Storage (PDMS) and is under constant monitoring to ensure the plant's safety and stability.

The cost of decommissioning a closed nuclear reactor and related structures at Three Mile Island is estimated at $918 million.[64]

Seismic risk

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission's estimate of the risk each year of an earthquake intense enough to cause core damage to the reactor at Three Mile Island was 1 in 25,000, according to an NRC study published in August 2010.[65][66]

See also

Notes
  1. Contrary to popular belief, Three Mile Island is named after the length of the island itself, not because it is three miles downriver from Middletown, Pennsylvania.[5]

References
  1. "EIA - State Nuclear Profiles". www.eia.gov. United States Energy Information Administration. Archived from the original on May 19, 2017. Retrieved October 3, 2017.
  2. Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved January 1, 2023. United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth series.
  3. https://www.exeloncorp.com/locations/Documents/Three%20Mile%20Island%20Generating%20Station%20Fact%20Sheet%20-%202017.pdf
  4. "PRIS - Reactor Details".
  5. Brubaker, Jack. "How did Three Mile Island get its name? It was another mistake! [The Scribbler]". LancasterOnline. Retrieved November 7, 2021.
  6. "Damaged Three Mile Island reactor gets a new corporate parent". pennlive. June 1, 2022. Retrieved June 4, 2022.
  7. "Fact Sheet on the Three Mile Island Accident". US Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Retrieved December 18, 2008.
  8. Maureen C. Hatch; et al. (1990). "Cancer near the Three Mile Island Nuclear Plant: Radiation Emissions". American Journal of Epidemiology. Oxford Journals. 132 (3): 397–412. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a115673. PMID 2389745.
  9. Levin RJ (2008). "Incidence of thyroid cancer in residents surrounding the three mile island nuclear facility". Laryngoscope. 118 (4): 618–628. doi:10.1097/MLG.0b013e3181613ad2. PMID 18300710. S2CID 27337295. Thyroid cancer incidence has not increased in Dauphin County, the county in which TMI is located. York County demonstrated a trend toward increasing thyroid cancer incidence beginning in 1995, approximately 15 years after the TMI accident. Lancaster County showed a significant increase in thyroid cancer incidence beginning in 1990. These findings, however, do not provide a causal link to the TMI accident.
  10. Hatch MC, Wallenstein S, Beyea J, Nieves JW, Susser M (June 1991). "Cancer rates after the Three Mile Island nuclear accident and proximity of residence to the plant". American Journal of Public Health. 81 (6): 719–724. doi:10.2105/AJPH.81.6.719. PMC 1405170. PMID 2029040. RESULTS: A modest association was found between postaccident cancer rates and proximity (OR = 1.4; 95% CI = 1.3, 1.6). After adjusting for a gradient in cancer risk prior to the accident, the odds ratio contrasting those closest to the plant with those living farther out was 1.2 (95% CI = 1.0, 1.4). A postaccident increase in cancer rates near the Three Mile Island plant was notable in 1982, persisted for another year, and then declined. Radiation emissions, as modeled mathematically, did not account for the observed increase.
  11. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 17, 2016. Retrieved June 19, 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
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  23. Phillips, Susan (April 17, 2020). "Pennsylvania Raises Alarms on Transfer of Radioactive Three Mile Island Reactor". State Impact Pennsylvania. Retrieved January 13, 2023.
  24. "NRC: Three Mile Island - Unit 2". www.nrc.gov. March 24, 2021. Retrieved April 1, 2021.
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  26. Bill Dedman, Nuclear neighbors: Population rises near US reactors, NBC News, April 14, 2011 http://www.nbcnews.com/id/42555888 Accessed May 1, 2011.
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  34. Fortin, Jacey (May 8, 2019). "Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Plant Is Shutting Down". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved May 13, 2019 – via NYTimes.com.
  35. Geuss, Megan (May 9, 2019). "The last reactor at Three Mile Island is shutting down". Ars Technica. Retrieved May 17, 2019.
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  42. "Worker killed in 'material handling accident' at Three Mile Island". WHP. September 13, 2021. Retrieved December 8, 2021.
  43. Gish, Jere (September 13, 2021). "Worker dies in 'material handling accident' at Three Mile Island". WGAL. Retrieved December 8, 2021.
  44. "Three Mile Island — Unit 2". Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Retrieved December 15, 2008.
  45. "Three Mile Island - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com". HISTORY.com. Retrieved December 7, 2017.
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  47. "No Evidence Reactor Leak Caused Cancer". The Washington Post. March 30, 1999. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
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  52. "FAQ for the China Syndrome". IMDb. Retrieved December 29, 2008.
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  58. Allen Abel, Life after a meltdown: Locals near Three Mile Island may be wary, but they aren't moving, The National Post, Saturday, March 19, 2011, p.A5
  59. Barrett, Paul (December 22, 2016). "States Are the Nuclear Industry's Best Hope". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved January 12, 2017. unless the government intervenes to keep the plant running, the notorious facility's "long-term future past 2019" is in doubt.
  60. "Three Mile Island operator takes another step toward closing nuclear plant". PennLive.com. June 23, 2017. Retrieved December 7, 2017.
  61. "Three Mile Island fights once again for its nuclear survival". Philly.com. Retrieved December 7, 2017.
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