Historical money of Tibet

Tibet had the biggest trade volume with China, the main barter items being horses from north-eastern Tibet (Amdo), which were traded for Chinese tea. Tibet also exported medicinal herbs, stag antlers, musk and gold to China, and apart from tea, the Tibetan traders imported silk cloth, porcelain and silver from China.[1]

The trade volume with Tibet's southern neighbours, India, Nepal and Bhutan, was much smaller. The Tibetan traders mainly exchanged salt and wool for grain (including rice) with these countries. Traditionally one measure of salt was traded for one measure of grain at the border with Nepal and India. Other, less important export goods were yak tails, musk and live animals (goats and sheep). For the 17th century, the export of falcons to India is also recorded.[1]

For large transactions within Tibet, gold dust (probably tied up in small leather bags) and Chinese silver ingots were used. These ingots came in different shapes; the most common kind resembled horseshoes or donkey shoes, and were named "rta rmig ma" in Tibetan.[2]

For small transactions, various consumer goods (which had about the same standard value among the majority of the Tibetans) could be used. Among others, these were areca nuts, tobacco, ceremonial scarves (khatas, also named khadags; Tibetan: kha btags) and tea[3] Tea was usually traded in the form of tea bricks (Tibetan: ja sbag). This developed into the most important medium of exchange in the 19th century, when a regular coinage had already been introduced into Tibet.[2]

For very small purchases, cowries (small seashells which were mainly procured in the Maldive Islands and reached Tibet and China via Bengal) and stone beads are recorded as being in use as money in ancient Tibet[4]

Before the government of the 5th Dalai Lama was established various small gold ingots circulated in Tibet, some of which were marked with stamps. So far there exists no consent whether these pieces could be regarded as coins. We are well informed about this type of gold currency, which was called "gold sho" (Tibetan: gser sho) because officials of finance of the new Tibetan government received tax payments in the form of these small gold ingots. The officials had to convert these into the current monetary standard. In order to assess the fineness of these pieces one used a standardized gold weight unit, which was referred to as Sewa (Tibetan: se ba) The following types of gold pieces are recorded in lists of the finance officials:

Furthermore, pieces designated as Tsangsho (Tib.: gtsang zho) are mentioned, but their gold weight is not specified. Lastly a form of gold currency named Sertam (Tib.: gser tam) is mentioned which had a gold weight of 2 sewas. Fifteen Sertam corresponded to one standard Changsho (Chagsho Tshema; Tibetan: byang zho tshad ma). The currency unit Gursho (Tibetan: mgur-zho) was already mentioned by Sarat Chandra Das in his Tibetan-English Dictionary. According to this author 1 Gursho = 24 sewas.[5]

Chinese silver ingots (sycee) were used until the 20th century for larger transactions. They were referred to as rta rmig ma ("horse hoof") and normally weighed 50 tael, or 50 srang (c. 185 grams). There existed also silver ingots of smaller size, named gyag rmig ma (yak hoof) and yet smaller ones, referred to as ra rmig ma (goat hoof). In the early 20th century the large ingots were worth about 60–70 Indian rupees, the ingots of medium size 12–14 rupees and the smallest ingots 2–3 rupees.[6] British-Indian authors occasionally refer to the silver bars found in Tibet, some of which were imported from Kashgar, as "yambus", an expression which derives from Chinese yuanbao.

Tibetan undated silver tangka (2nd half of the 18th century) with eight times the syllable "dza" in vartula script,reverse. The Tibetan "dza" can be used to transcribe the Sanskrit syllable "ja" which can be short for "jaya" ("victorious"). The central design of the coin is a wheel with eight spokes which is a reference to the Buddhist "dharmacakra" ("wheel of law"). Thus the design and the inscription of the coin combined may have the meaning "victorious wheel of law", or, in a wider sense "victorious teaching of Buddha".

The first coinage which was extensively used in southern Tibet was silver coins, which were supplied by the Nepalese Malla Kingdoms and the first kings of the subsequent Shah dynasty from about 1640 until 1791.[7]

Tibet provided the silver for the striking of these coins and received coins at the same weight, the Nepalese reaping a handsome profit by alloying the pure silver with copper before the striking of the coins. Owing to a dispute between Nepal and Tibet regarding the fineness of the silver coins supplied by Nepal, the export of these coins was disrupted after the mid-eighteenth century.[8][9][10][11][12]

In order to overcome the shortage of coins in Tibet at that time, the Tibetan government started striking its own coins, modelled on Nepalese prototypes. This occurred in 1763-64 and again in 1785 without any interference by the Chinese government.[8][9][10][12]

The Nepalese tried to carry on the very lucrative coin business during the Shah dynasty which had been established by Prithvi Narayan Shah in the Kathmandu Valley in 1768. First the Nepalese supplied mohars (silver coins which weighed about 5.4 grams) of good silver, but wanted these to circulate at the rate of one new mohar for two of the old adulterated silver coins struck by the Malla kings. This would have meant a tremendous loss for the Tibetan traders, and so the Tibetan Government did not accept these terms.[12]

The second Shah king, who ruled from Kathmandu, Pratap Singh Shah, supplied alloyed silver coins during the period 1775 until 1777. Thereafter, when the Nepalese again tried to introduce into Tibet coins of good silver, which should have circulated at a considerable premium compared with the Malla and Pratap Simha coins, the Tibetans refused which resulted in a disruption of trade between Nepal and Tibet. Tibet again experimented with its own coinage in 1785, in order to mitigate the shortage of silver coins.[12]

kong par tangka dated 13-45 (= AD 1791),obverse

In order to resume the profitable coin export on their terms, the Nepalese invaded Tibet in 1788 and again in 1790/91. When the Tibetan Government turned to China for help, an imperial army was sent to Tibet. Together with the Tibetan army they managed to drive out the Nepalese by the autumn of 1792.[12]

The Chinese took this opportunity to tighten their grip on Tibet, and issued an edict which among other dispositions stipulated the introduction of a new silver coinage, struck in the name of the Qianlong Emperor.[12] In the same time it was from now on forbidden to import silver coins from Nepal.[13] In order to solve temporarily the shortage of coins in Tibet when the Chinese army arrived in 1791, the Chinese had allowed the striking of the so-called "Kong-par tangkas" which were produced from alloyed silver and had a design copied from Nepalese prototypes. These tangkas which first were produced in the Kongpo province and later in Lhasa, were the first mass-produced silver coins of Tibet and had about the same weight as their Nepalese counterparts, i.e. about 5.2 grams.[13] From 1793 new coins made from almost pure silver were struck in Lhasa. These had both Tibetan and Chinese inscriptions. Meanwhile, the striking of the Kong-par tangkas continued through the year 1792 and in early 1793. Both types of coins were authorised by the Chinese, and struck under joint Chinese and Tibetan supervision, but they were not part of the Chinese currency system, as silver coinage was unknown in China during the 18th and early 19th century (with the exception of the area which is now Xinjiang autonomous region).[4]

kong par tangka dated 13-45(= AD 1791),reverse

In 1791 it was originally planned by the Chinese authorities to cast copper cash coins in Tibet. Had this plan been carried out, the Tibetan coinage could have become part of the Chinese currency system. But this plan was abandoned because it was found to be too expensive to transport copper from China to Tibet in order to cast cash coinage in Lhasa.[4]

Between 1791 and 1836 the Tibetan currency was largely decided on by the Chinese government in consultation with Tibetan authorities, and silver coins were struck to the sho (zho) standard (i.e. about 3.7 grams) in the 58th, 59th and 60th year of Qianlong (1793, 1794 and 1795).[14]

A few silver coins were also struck in the 61st year of Qianlong (1796) who had abdicated towards the end of his 60th year in power. By the time the news of his abdication reached Lhasa, some silver coins of the 61st year had already been struck and released for circulation.[14]

Further Sino-Tibetan silver coins were struck in the first six years of the Jiaqing era (1796–1801), as well as during the 8th and 9th year (1803–04) and during the last two years of this reign, the 24th and 25th year (1819–20). During the Daoguang era which followed, silver coins were struck only in the first four years of this era (1821–24) and in the 15th and 16th year (1835–36).[15]

Sino-Tibetan coin of the 6th year of the Jiaqing era (1801)

Thereafter Chinese influence weakened in Tibet, and from 1840 until 1954 the Tibetan Government made decisions about Tibet's coinage system with just one incidental interference by the Chinese; the coins of this period had only Tibetan inscriptions and designs, and made no reference whatsoever to China.[15]

The only incident which interrupted the production of purely Tibetan coins occurred during the short period of 1909 to 1910 when the Tibetan Government struck copper and silver coins dated to the first year of the Xuan Tong era (1909), and in 1910 when the Chinese Amban (representative of the Imperial Chinese Government) in Lhasa had silver and copper coins struck with legends in Chinese and Tibetan. These are the only coins minted in Tibet which can be considered as being part of the Chinese currency system of this period.[15]

The only coin types which were produced in Lhasa between 1840 until 1908 were silver coins struck to the tangka standard of the newly created "Ganden tangka" (Nicholas Rhodes: The Gaden Tangka of Tibet. Oriental Numismatic Society, Occasional Paper, no. 17, January 1983) and of the earlier "Kong-par tangka" type.[15]

Sino-Tibetan coin of the 6th year of the Jiaqing era (1801) with Tibetan and Manchurian inscription (reverse)

After the already mentioned interruption of the purely Tibetan coin production towards the end of the Qing dynasty (1909/10), the Tibetan Government started producing a large selection of silver and copper coins in various denominations ranging from 2 ½ skar to 1 srang. Later silver coins of higher denominations were introduced: 1 ½ and 3 srang (1933–1938 and 1946) From 1949 until 1952 coins with the denomination "10 srang" which contained only about 10% of silver, were struck; this is the highest denomination coin which was released for regular circulation in Tibet.[15]

From 1918 until early 1921, gold coins of the denomination "20 srang" were struck in the Serkhang mint which was located near Norbulingka, the summer residence of the Dalai Lamas. These gold coins did not circulate very much in Tibet and were mainly used for storing wealth, or they were exported to India where a good profit could be obtained.[15]

Silver tangkas of the "Ganden Tangka" design continued to be struck in the 20th century parallel to the various other denominations which were just mentioned. The last Tibetan silver coin of this design was produced in 1953/54; this was a special issue struck in fine silver for distribution to monks in the Lhasa area. These neatly machine-struck coins were valued at five srang.

From 1840 until 1932 Tibet's coins were struck by hand, and later with water-powered or man-powered locally-made machines, in different mints located in or near Lhasa.

Sichuan Rupee. Early issue of good silver, struck in Chengdu in or after 1902. Obverse

During the second part of the 19th and the first third of the 20th century numerous foreign silver coins circulated in Tibet. Most of them were traded by weight, such as Mexican and Spanish American silver dollars, Russian roubles and German marks. The exception were British Indian rupees, particularly the ones with the portrait of Queen Victoria, which widely circulated in Tibet and were mostly preferred to Tibetan coins. These rupees were of good silver and had a fixed value, exchanging for three tangkas until about 1920[16] and in later years of the 20th century they considerably increased in value. The Chinese authorities saw the popularity of the Indian rupees among Tibetan traders with misgivings and in 1902 started striking their own rupees which were close copies of the Indian Victoria rupees, the portrait of the Queen being replaced by that of a Chinese mandarin, or, as most numismatists believe, of the Guangxu Emperor of China. The Chinese rupees were struck in Chengdu and, starting in the 1930s also in Kangding, the former Tibeto-Chinese border town in western Sichuan. The first issues were of good silver and could gain a certain popularity among the Tibetans, but later issues, particularly the ones minted in Kangding, had a considerable amount of alloy, and were therefore not accepted by many traders. In the early minting-period also a small number of half and quarter rupees were struck in Chengdu. Since they often ended up as buttons or as parts of silver jewellery, their production was soon discontinued, and, when small change was needed, the whole rupees were cut in half or were quartered with the help of a sword and a hammer.[17] The total mintage figure of the half rupees was 130,000 and that of the quarter rupees 120,000. It is estimated that between 25,500,000 and 27,500,000 Sichuan rupees were minted between 1902 and 1942.[18]