LGBT rights in South Korea

The Korean word for "homosexual" is dongseongaeja (Korean: 동성애자; Hanja: 同性愛者, "same-sex lover"). A less politically correct term is dongseongyeonaeja (Hangul: 동성연애자; Hanja: 同性戀愛者). South Korean homosexuals, however, make frequent use of the term ibanin (Hangul: 이반인; Hanja: 異般人 also 二般人) which can be translated as "different type person", and is usually shortened to iban (Hangul: 이반; Hanja: 異般).[11]

The word is a direct play on the word ilban-in (Hangul: 일반인; Hanja: 一般人) meaning "normal person" or "ordinary person". In addition, English loanwords are used in South Korea to describe LGBT people. These words are simple transliterations of English words into hangul: lesbian is lejeubieon or yeoseongae (Hangul: 레즈비언 or 여성애; Hanja: 女性愛), gay is gei or namseongae (Hangul: 게이 or 남성애; Hanja: 男性愛), queer is kuieo (Hangul: 퀴어), transgender is teuraenseujendeo (Hangul: 트랜스젠더), and bisexual is yangseongaeja (Hangul: 양성애자; Hanja: 兩性愛者).[12]

Although there is very little mention of homosexuality in Korean literature or traditional historical accounts, several members of the nobility and Buddhist monks have been known to either profess their attraction to members of the same sex or else be actively involved with them.[13]

During the Silla Dynasty, several noble men and women are known to have engaged in homosexual activity and express their love for a person of the same sex. Among these is King Hyegong. In addition, the hwarang (Hangul: 화랑; Hanja: 花郞), also known as the Flowering Knights or the Flowering Boys, were an elite group of male Silla warriors, famous for their homoeroticism and femininity. The Samguk yusa, a collection of Korean legends, folktales and historical accounts, contains verses that reveal the homosexual nature of the hwarang.[14][15]

During the Goryeo Dynasty, King Mokjong (980–1009) and King Gongmin (1325–1374) are both on record as having kept several wonchung ("male lovers") in their courts as "little-brother attendants" (chajewhi) who served as sexual partners. After the death of his wife, King Gongmin even went so far as to create a ministry whose sole purpose was to seek out and recruit young men from all over the country to serve in his court. Others including King Chungseon had long-term relationships with men. Those who were in same-sex relationships were referred to as yongyang jichong, whose translation has been subject to argument, but is generally viewed as meaning the "dragon and the sun".[15]

In the Joseon Era, several noblemen and noblewomen are known to have had same-sex sexual relations, including Royal Noble Consort Sun-bin Bong who was the second consort of Munjong of Joseon and King Sejong's daughter-in-law who was banished after it was discovered that she was sleeping with one of her maids. During this period, there were travelling theater groups known as namsadang which included underaged males called midong ("beautiful boys"). The troupes provided "various types of entertainment, including band music, song, masked dance, circus, and puppet plays," sometimes with graphic representations of same-sex intercourse. The namsandang were further separated in two groups; the "butch" members (숫동모, sutdongmo) and the "queens" (여동모, yeodongmo, or 암동모, amdongmo).[15]

The spread of Neo-Confucianism in South Korea shaped the moral system, the way of life, and social relations of Korean society. Neo-Confucianism emphasizes strict obedience to the social order and the family unit, which referred to a husband and wife. Homosexuality and same-sex relationships were viewed as disturbing this system and thus were perceived as "deviant" or "immoral". Since the 1910s, Neo-Confucianism has lost a lot of influence, though still today Confucian ideas and practices significantly define South Korean culture and society.[15]

Homosexuality was officially declassified as "harmful and obscene" in 2003.[16]

In August 2017, the Supreme Court ordered the government to allow "Beyond the Rainbow" (Korean: 비온뒤무지개재단), an LGBT rights foundation, to register as a charity with the Ministry of Justice. Without official registration, the foundation was unable to receive tax-deductible donations and operate in full compliance with the law.[17][18] In 2014, the South Korean Government voted in favor of a symbolic United Nations resolution aimed at combating discrimination against LGBT people.[16]

Same-sex marriages and civil unions are not legally recognized in South Korea. In October 2019, the Government of South Korea announced it would recognize the same-sex spouses of foreign diplomats, but it would not recognize the same-sex spouses of South Korean diplomats who serve overseas.[19]

In October 2014, some members of the Democratic Party introduced a bill to recognize same-sex partnerships to the National Assembly.[20] However, the bill was never brought to a vote.

In July 2015, actor Kim Jho Gwangsoo and his partner Kim Seung-Hwan filed a lawsuit seeking legal status for their marriage. The lawsuit was rejected by the Seoul Western District Court in May 2016 and by an appeals court in December 2016. The couple subsequently announced that they would bring their case to the Supreme Court.[21][22]

In May 2019, Kim Gyu-Jin married her wife in a Manhattan marriage bureau, New York City to obtain a marriage registration. Then they had a factory wedding in Seoul in November. In May 2020, to celebrate the 1st wedding anniversary, Kim Gyu-Jin and her spouse filed a marriage registration with the Jongno-Gu Office but received the notice of non-repair.[23] She shared her same-sex marriage experiences on her blog 'Living as an openly queer in Korea'. After this, she interviewed her experiences including KBS, a Korean national broadcaster on prime time. Another is on the main news page of KakaoTalk, South Korea's leading messaging app. The article received about 10,000 comments, 80 percent of which were negative, she said. Some people told the couple to “Get out of Korea.” Others worried that society and families would fall apart on a tide of lesbian weddings. Some replies were intensely malicious and threatening. After consulting a lawyer, and pushing the police to talk to portal sites, she sued the 100 most malicious commentators.[24][25]

In January 2021, Seoul's Ministry of Gender Equality and Family announced it will propose changes to civil and welfare regulations so that single parents and unmarried, cohabitating partners can become legal families. A ministry official, however, said that the reform would only apply to heterosexual couples. "There hasn't been any discussion nor even a consideration about same-sex couples," the official, who was not authorized to speak with the media and asked for anonymity, wrote in an email.[26]

The National Human Rights Commission Act (Korean: 국가인권위원회법), enacted in 2001, established the National Human Rights Commission of Korea (NHRCK). Under South Korean law, the NHRCK is an independent commission for protecting, advocating, and promoting human rights. The National Human Rights Commission Act explicitly includes sexual orientation as an anti-discrimination ground. When discriminatory acts are found to have occurred, the National Human Rights Commission of Korea may conduct investigations on such acts and recommend non-binding relief measures, disciplinary actions or report them to the authorities.[27][16] Even so, the body does not have coercive powers.

South Korean national law does not prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity.[28] Over the years, a repeated cycle of anti-discrimination legislation has been proposed and abandoned. An anti-discrimination bill was submitted in 2007 by the Ministry of Justice, but a movement of opposition arose and led to the bill being abandoned.[29] In 2013, a bill to include sexual orientation, religion and political ideology to the country's anti-discrimination law was introduced. It received fierce opposition from conservative groups.[30][31]

During the 17th National Assembly, an anti-discrimination bill was sponsored by the late Roh Hoe-chan. Another bill was sponsored by former lawmaker Kwon Young-gil during the 18th National Assembly. Both bills were dropped before any debate had taken place. During the 19th National Assembly, former lawmakers Kim Han-gil and Choi Won-sik sponsored bills only to withdraw them after encountering objections. In 2019, the National Assembly failed to hold a debate on comprehensive anti-discrimination legislation. Objections to the anti-discrimination bills come chiefly from conservative Protestants.[32]

During the 20th National Assembly, lawmaker Kim Tae-heum (Liberty Korea Party) presented a bill that would have removed the category of sexual orientation from the National Human Rights Commission Act. In 2019, politician Ahn Sang-soo introduced another bill to repeal the protection for sexual orientation in the National Human Rights Commission Act and to restrict legal recognition of gender to a biological basis.[32] The bill was supported by 40 of the Assembly's 300 MPs, drawing criticism and protests from LGBT advocates and Amnesty International.[33]

As of 2019, the Justice Party planned to prepare a comprehensive anti-discrimination bill.[34] A 2014 poll found that 85% of South Koreans believed gay people should be protected from discrimination.[35] According to a more recent poll, conducted in 2017 by Gallup Korea, 90% of South Koreans said they supported equal employment opportunities for LGBT people.[16]

On 23 December, in a special report issued by the National Human Rights Commission, President Moon Jae-in stressed the need for equality legislation. While acknowledging there is some opposition to the enactment of an anti-discrimination law, Moon said he expects the National Assembly to actively discuss such legislation in the near future. The U.N. Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Committee on the Rights of the Child, the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, and the Human Rights Committee have recommended the enactment of anti-discrimination legislation. As a presidential candidate in 2012, Moon cited a comprehensive anti-discrimination act as one of the top 10 priorities of his human rights policy. Since taking office in 2017, Moon has been reluctant to enact such legislation amid opposition from within his governing Democratic Party of Korea.[36]

In 2022, NBC News spoke with progressive South Korean lawmakers and dozens of LGBTQ+ South Koreans across the country; most said a comprehensive nondiscrimination bill that would outlaw discrimination against all minority groups, including the LGBTQ+ community, is key first step toward legal equality.[2][5] In the view of activists, the codification of a nondiscrimination law could catalyze additional legal protections, like same-sex marriage, domestic partnerships, and joint adoption for same-sex couples. Some LGBTQ+ activists said the bill alone could still ease their everyday sense of danger. June Green, a trans-male bartender from Seoul, told NBC News reporter Michael Mitsanas that "because we still don't have a nondiscrimination bill, I often feel threatened to just walk on the street."[2]

On LGBTQ+ rights, South Korea is an outlier among OECD nations, according to an NBC News analysis. On the 2019 Franklin & Marshall Global Barometer of Gay Rights, OECD nations averaged a grade of B. South Korea, however, was one of three OECD countries to earn an "F." Countries that receive an F are "persecuting" their LGBTQ+ communities.[2][5]

Province-level protections

Map of provinces, cities, districts and counties in South Korea that have LGBT discrimination protections

  Bans discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation

Currently, 15 local governments in South Korea have enacted anti-discrimination policies and provisions (not laws) that include sexual orientation. This includes five first-level subdivisions: South Gyeongsang Province, Seoul, Jeju Province, North Chungcheong Province and South Chungcheong Province.[27][37]

South Gyeongsang Province enacted anti-discrimination policies in March 2010. The policy states that "citizens shall not be discriminated, without reasonable grounds, on the grounds of sex, religion, disability, age, social status, region of origin, state of origin, ethnic origin, physical condition such as appearance, medical history, marital status, political opinion, and sexual orientation".[27]

Seoul passed regional policies aimed at combatting discrimination on the grounds mentioned in the National Human Rights Commission Act in September 2012. The passage of this policy received fierce and violent opposition from conservative groups.[27]

Similarly, both Jeju Province and North Chungcheong Province passed similar policies in October 2015 banning discrimination on the grounds mentioned in the National Human Rights Commission Act.[37] South Chungcheong Province followed suit in October 2018.[38]

Several second-level jurisdictions have also enacted anti-discrimination provisions that cover sexual orientation. These are:[27][37]

• Yeonje District, Busan (November 2010)
• Suyeong District, Busan (December 2010)
• Buk District, Ulsan (January 2011)
• Nam District, Busan (May 2011)
• Buk District, Busan (March 2012)
• Jung District, Ulsan (April 2013)
• Dong District, Daejeon (April 2015)
• Haeundae District, Busan (July 2015)
• Eunpyeong District, Seoul (October 2015)
• Hwasun County, South Jeolla (December 2017)

Consensual same-sex intercourse is a crime in the South Korean military.[2][47] Article 92-6 of the 1962 Military Criminal Act criminalizes “anal intercourse” or “any other indecent acts” between military personnel, and carries a punishment of up to two years in prison. In April 2022, the Supreme Court found that the law cannot be applied to consensual acts that occur off-base during off-duty hours.[48] Activists have called for the Constitutional Court to rule the law unconstitutional.[48][49][50]

Military service is mandatory for all male citizens in South Korea. Enlistees are drafted through the Military Manpower Administration (MMA; Korean: 병무청) which administers a "psychology test" at the time of enlistment that includes several questions regarding the enlistee's sexual preferences. Homosexual military members in active duty are categorized as having a "personality disorder" or "behavioral disability" and can either be institutionalized or dishonorably discharged.

In 2017, Amnesty International accused the military of engaging in a "gay witch hunt" to expose and punish gay personnel, by criminally charging 32 military personnel for "sodomy or other disgraceful conduct", including sentencing a gay soldier to six months imprisonment for having consensual sex with another gay soldier in a private place.[51]

In January 2020, staff sergeant Byun Hui-su, a transgender conscript, was dismissed from military after undergoing gender affirming care, and later committed suicide. In 2021, a South Korean district court posthumously reinstated her.[2][52]

In South Korea there is no legal barrier to gender-affirming health procedures, although it is not currently covered by state health insurance.[53] In a 2019 survey of 500 Korean people, Korean respondents are likely to have a positive or neutral view of transgender people. 12% of Koreans said that they knew a friend or family member who was transgender. Roughly 60% of the Korean respondents also said that transgender individuals should be protected from discrimination, and that they should be allowed gender-affirming healthcare. 45% said they should not be allowed in the military. A slight majority of Korean respondents agreed that South Korea is becoming more accepting of transgender people, and a significant majority agreed that transgender people are not violating traditional Korean cultural values.[53]

Transgender and gender diverse South Koreans face discriminatory challenges unique to their communities.[2] It said that employment is difficult to for transgender people because certain jobs are often gendered.[54] Koreans are less likely to support marriage equality for transgender people, however this opinion varies heavily by age.[53]

In Korea, intersex people are largely ignored or marginalized because of the lack of familiarity with the term "intersex" itself and because of the general stigma that surrounds intersex people. As a result, intersex people are faced with a lack of access to medical services and some are even pushed to getting "genital normalizing surgery" without informed consent.[62] This concept of medicalizing intersex people is still very prevalent in Korea and perpetuates the social diagnosis of intersex people as "diseased" or having to receive surgical "normalization."[63] To mitigate these problems, in October 2015, South Korea joined the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans, and Intersex Association (ILGA) and have started increasing the number of articles and information on intersex people that are published nationwide to increase general knowledge about intersex people.[62]

In a 2016 survey, 16.1% of LGBT people who had come out were recommended to undergo conversion therapy. Of these, 65.4% said it had a harmful impact on their lives, with 94% experiencing psychological trauma.[27] A 2017 survey reported that 58% of LGBT individuals who experienced conversion therapy in the past are still negatively affected by it in the present.[64] Studies have shown that 40% of LGBT respondents have claimed to have experienced homophobic statements or discriminatory treatment by counselors for conversion therapy.[43]

South Korea forbids people who have had sex "with certain high-risk individuals" within the past one year to donate blood. These rules apply equally to all people, regardless of their sexual orientation or gender identity. The official guidelines urge people to not donate for the purposes of finding out if they have AIDS.[65]

Homosexuality remains quite taboo in South Korean society. The World Values Survey of 2005 to 2009 had shown that Korea was the second most-hostile country towards homosexuals among 17 countries surveyed.[66]

In 2022, NBC News producer Michael Mitsanas spent "months" documenting the LGBTQ+ experience in South Korea, according to Hallie Jackson.[5] LGBTQ+ South Koreans who spoke to NBC News described a culture of "round-the-clock" discrimination and abuse.[2] Rep. Jang Hye-yeong told NBC News that "just telling somebody that you are LGBTQ will certainly subject you to discrimination." Jeon-il, a gay bartender in Itaewon, told Mitsanas that holding hands with a partner in public is "basically impossible." Yoo - who asked that NBC News withhold his full name, citing a fear of retribution - said he must "erase the queer to act masculine" while working his corporate job in Seoul, adding that he's "afraid" of what his coworkers would do "if they find out I'm gay." June Green, a trans-male bartender in Seoul, said he must make "a deeper voice whenever I leave my house, and even then, people still approach me to ask if I'm a guy or girl."[2]

Pride parades

Seoul Pride parade 2015

Participants at the 2014 Seoul Queer Culture Festival

Daegu Pride parade 2014. On the right of the photograph are police officers. They were deployed to protect the participants as several protestors had tried to violently disrupt the event.

The Seoul Queer Culture Festival, also known as the "Korea Queer Culture Festival" or simply "Seoul Pride", is the largest LGBT event in the country. It was first held in 2000 when only 50 attended and turnout has increased every year since then. In 2015, following protests by conservative Christian groups, the Seoul Metropolitan Police Agency banned the event citing public safety concerns and traffic disruption as the reasons.[106][107] The decision was overturned by the Seoul Administrative Court, allowing the parade to take place, which saw around 20,000 people participating.[108][109]

In 2016, there were 50,000 attendees. In July 2017, an estimated 85,000 people (according to the organizers) marched in the streets of Seoul in support of LGBT rights.[110] Ahead of the 2018 event, around 220,000 people signed an online petition demanding that officials act to prevent the festival from taking place.[111][112][113][114] However, the 2018 Seoul Pride parade took place and was attended by an estimated 120,000 people.[115]

In July 2019, conservative Christian groups again tried to block the festival, arguing that it "would be harmful to children and it would infringe on their rights". A court rejected their application as nonsensical.[116] Days later, the 20th edition of the festival was held with approximately 150,000 participants.[117][118]

Daegu has been holding annual pride marches since 2009, and Busan held its first pride event on 23 September 2017. In 2018, during the second gay pride in Busan, some 2,000 police officials were deployed to keep the event violence-free, and to protect the event's 15,000 attendees from violent anti-gay protesters.[119] Gwangju and Jeju also held their first LGBT events in 2017.[74] Gwangju's was a counter-protest to an anti-LGBT rally. The city organised its first official pride event the following year. Other cities, including Incheon and Jeonju, held their first pride events in 2018.[120]

Incheon officials initially denied permission to hold the LGBT event, citing a lack of parking. Organizers lodged an appeal and vowed to march irrespectively. The event took place and ended in violence after about 1,000 Christian protestors began violently attacking the participants.[121] In April 2019, organizers of the gay pride event in Incheon filed charges against several Christian pastors who violently disrupted the event. They also lodged complaints with South Korea's national human rights body accusing police of inaction.[122][123]

In May 2018, the first drag parade in South Korea took place with dozens attending the incident-free protest march in the capital Seoul.[124][125]

In 2020, three cities gave up holding Queer Culture Festival due to COVID-19.[126] The new media startup 'Dotface' held a queer parade online. People participated by making their avatars through dotface's homepage and uploading the avatars on Instagram with hashtag #우리는없던길도만들지 #온라인퀴퍼 (online Queer Parade).[127]

In May 2023, Seoul's city government blocked South Korea's annual LGBT festival from taking place outside city hall and granted a permit for anti-LGBT Christian concert instead.[128][129][130]

South Koreans have become significantly more accepting of homosexuality and LGBT rights in 2010 and the onward decade,[132] even if conservative attitudes remain dominant. Public support for same-sex marriage is growing rapidly. In 2010, 31% and 21% of South Koreans in their 20s and 30s, respectively, supported the legalization of same-sex marriages. In 2014, these numbers had almost doubled to 60% and 40%. Support among people over 60, however, remained relatively unchanged (14% to 15%). These numbers were published by the Asan Institute for Policy Studies.[133]

A 2013 Gallup poll found that 39% of people believed homosexuality should be accepted by society, compared to only 18% who held this view in 2007. South Korea recorded the most significant shift towards greater acceptance of homosexuality among the 39 countries surveyed worldwide. Significantly, there was a very large age gap on this issue: in 2013, 71% of South Koreans aged between 18 and 29 believed that homosexuality should be accepted, compared to only 16% of South Koreans aged 50 and over.[132]

In April 2013, a Gallup poll, which was commissioned by a conservative Christian group, found that 25% of South Koreans supported same-sex marriage, while 67% opposed it and 8% did not know or refused to answer.[134] However, a May 2013 Ipsos poll found that 26% of respondents were in favor of same-sex marriage and another 31% supported other forms of recognition for same-sex couples.[135]

A 2017 Gallup Korea poll found that 58% of Koreans were against same-sex marriage, while 34% supported it and 8% remained undecided.[54] Another poll in December 2017 conducted by Gallup for MBC and the Speaker of the National Assembly reported that 41% of South Koreans thought that same-sex marriage should be allowed, 53% were against it.[136]

In February 2019, the "2018 Korea Social Integration Survey", which was conducted by the Korea Institute of Public Administration, revealed that those who said they "cannot accept homosexuals" fell below 50% for the first time in the survey's history. This percentage decreased from 62% in 2013 to 57% in 2017, to 49% in 2018. In 2018, the rest of those interviewed answered that they could accept them as either neighbors (31%), colleagues (15%), close friends (6%), or spouses (0.4%).[137]

A 2019 survey of 500 Korean respondents found that a majority had a favorable view of transgender people, and that they did not violate Korean traditional cultural values. Most supported gender-affirming care for trans people, however a majority still agreed that they should not be allowed to serve in the military.[53]

A 2020 Pew Research Center poll showed that 44% of South Koreans believed society should accept homosexuality. South Korea recorded the largest generational gap of the 34 countries surveyed, with 79% of 18–29-year-olds agreeing but only 23% of those aged 50 and over. Women (51%), the more educated (51%), those on the left of the political spectrum (67%), and the religiously unaffiliated (60%) were also more likely to agree.[138]

According to a poll in May 2021, 81% of the respondents said no to the question "Is it fair to fire a worker based on their sexuality?" and 12% said yes.[139] In terms of marriage equality, 38% were in favour of same-sex marriage while 52% were against it.[139]

In a 2023 Pew Research Center survey, 40% of South Korean respondents supported same-sex marriage while 59% were opposed.[140] There was an extreme difference in opinion based on the ages of the South Korean respondents. While only 32% of South Koreans over the age of 40 supported gay marriage, 58% of South Koreans aged 18-39 supported it.[140]

In the 2008 legislative election, Choi Hyun-sook became the first openly LGBT parliamentary candidate in the country. As an openly lesbian candidate, she ran for the New Progressive Party. Her party did not win any seats during the election.[141][142]

The United Future Party is opposed to LGBT rights, the Seoul Queer Culture Festival, anti-discrimination protections for LGBT people and same-sex marriage. Some of its members have made many public homophobic statements.[117][143][137]

Political support for LGBT rights is limited in South Korea due to the significant lobbying power exerted by conservative Christian groups.[51][144] Support for LGBT rights is limited even from the otherwise Democratic Party of Korea and its leader, former human rights lawyer and South Korean President Moon Jae-in.[145][146] During the 2017 presidential election, in which he emerged victorious, Moon stated that he opposed homosexuality,[147] and that gay soldiers could undermine the Korean military.[148]

Moon faced criticism from gay rights advocates for his inconsistent position on minority rights, given that he was prepared to backtrack on previous support for civil unions and sacrifice LGBT rights in order to win votes from conservative Christian voters.[149] Moon later said that he opposed same-sex marriage while also opposing discrimination against homosexual people.[150] Only one of the 14 presidential candidates in 2017, the Justice Party's Sim Sang-jung, expressed clear support for LGBT rights and introducing discrimination protections for LGBT people.[148]

During South Korea's 2018 elections, openly transgender candidate Kim Ki-hong (김기홍) ran for a seat in the National Assembly of South Korea. Kim ran again under the Green Party Korea in 2020 for the National Assembly of South Korea. Due to transphobic abuse Kim endured during the campaign, they decided to end their life on February 24, 2021.[151]

During the 2019 Seoul Queer Culture Festival, the Justice Party and the Green Party participated in the event. Some members of the ruling Democratic Party of Korea (DPK) also participated, including Keum Tae-sup. This is believed to be the first participation of the DPK at the event.[117]

In October 2019, speaking to Buddhist and Christian religious leaders, President Moon Jae-in said, "A national consensus should be the priority for same-sex marriage. However, regarding the human rights of sexual minorities, they should not be socially persecuted or discriminated against."[152]

The Government of South Korea practiced censorship of gay content websites from 2001 to 2003, through its Information and Communications Ethics Committee (정보통신윤리위원회), an official organ of the Ministry of Information and Communication. That practice has since been ended.[153]

The South Korean Government has been criticized for the lack of protection for LGBT people.[154][155] As of 2020, South Korea has no national law preventing discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, which places it at the bottom of the list of OECD countries in regard to LGBT rights.[154] In addition, South Korea's aggressive track and test method to the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in several LGBT South Koreans being outed by either the press or by the public government records related to testing. A cluster of cases was linked to a gay bar in Seoul in May 2020, with all of those in attendance having their personal characteristics, and in some cases also their occupation, released to the public.[155]

In a country with no protections, the idea of being listed in public government records as LGBT is "insurmountable" and can lead to "long-term negative social effects". Several LGBT people who had visited the bar decided not to report their positive COVID status. Government officials announced anonymous testing procedures later that month. Several COVID clusters were also linked to notoriously homophobic Christian churches or organizations.[155]

• Chingusai
• LGBTQI health in South Korea
• Recognition of same-sex unions in South Korea
• Solidarity for LGBT Human Rights of Korea
• Yun Hyon-seok

General:

• Human rights in South Korea
• LGBT rights in Asia

• "정의당 "모든 원내 정당, 차별금지법 제정 함께 해야"" (in Korean). 14 June 2020. Retrieved 17 July 2020.

• Lee, Hyun Jung (2022). "Case Analysis: Non-Criminalization of Same-Sex Relations". Discrimination Based on Sexual Orientation : Jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights and the Constitutional Court of Korea. Springer International Publishing. pp. 187–209. ISBN 978-3-030-95423-9.

• Official website of Buddy, Korean LGBT Magazine. (in Korean)
• Official website of Chingusai, one of Korea's oldest gay men's organizations. (in Korean)
• Official website of the Korean Queer Culture Festival. (in Korean)
• Official website of the Korean Sexual-Minority Culture and Rights Center. (in Korean)
• Official website of RAinbowTEEN (Rateen), LGBT youth group. (in Korean)
• Official website of the Lesbian Counseling Center in South Korea. (in Korean)