Venus

Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is a rocky planet with the densest atmosphere of all the rocky bodies in the Solar System, and the only one with a mass and size that is close to that of its orbital neighbour Earth. Orbiting inferiorly (inside of Earth's orbit), it appears in Earth's sky always close to the Sun, as either a "morning star" or an "evening star". While this is also true for Mercury, Venus appears much more prominently, since it is the third brightest object in Earth's sky after the Moon and the Sun,[20][21] appearing brighter than any other star-like classical planet or any fixed star. With such prominence in Earth's sky, Venus has historically been a common and important object for humans, in both their cultures and astronomy.

Venus
Near-global view of Venus in natural colour, taken by the MESSENGER space probe
Designations
Pronunciation/ˈvnəs/
Named after
Roman goddess of love (see goddess Venus)
AdjectivesVenusian /vɪˈnjziən, -ʒən/,[1] rarely Cytherean /sɪθəˈrən/[2] or Venerean / Venerian /vɪˈnɪəriən/[3]
Symbol♀
Orbital characteristics[4][5]
Epoch J2000
Aphelion0.728213 AU (108.94 million km)
Perihelion0.718440 AU (107.48 million km)
0.723332 AU (108.21 million km)
Eccentricity0.006772[6]
583.92 days[4]
35.02 km/s
50.115°
Inclination
76.680°[6]
54.884°
SatellitesNone
Physical characteristics
Mean radius
  • 6,051.8±1.0 km[8]
  • 0.9499 Earths
Flattening0[8]
  • 4.6023×108 km2
  • 0.902 Earths
Volume
  • 9.2843×1011 km3
  • 0.857 Earths
Mass
  • 4.8675×1024 kg[9]
  • 0.815 Earths
Mean density
5.243 g/cm3
  • 8.87 m/s2
  • 0.904 g
10.36 km/s (6.44 mi/s)[10]
−116.75 d (retrograde)[11]
1 Venus solar day
−243.0226 d (retrograde)[12]
Equatorial rotation velocity
6.52 km/h (1.81 m/s)
2.64° (for retrograde rotation)
177.36° (to orbit)[4][note 1]
North pole right ascension
  • 18h 11m 2s
  • 272.76°[13]
North pole declination
67.16°
Albedo
Temperature232 K (−41 °C) (blackbody temperature)[16]
Surface temp. min mean max
Kelvin 737 K[4]
Celsius 464 °C
Fahrenheit 867 °F
Surface absorbed dose rate2.1×10−6 μGy/h[17]
Surface equivalent dose rate2.2×10−6 μSv/h
0.092–22 μSv/h at cloud level[17]
−4.92 to −2.98[18]
−4.4[19]
9.7″–66.0″[4]
Atmosphere[4]
Surface pressure
93 bar (9.3 MPa)
92 atm
Composition by volume
  1. Defining the rotation as retrograde, as done by NASA space missions and the USGS, puts Ishtar Terra in the northern hemisphere and makes the axial tilt 2.64°. Following the right-hand rule for prograde rotation puts Ishtar Terra in the negative hemisphere and makes the axial tilt 177.36°.

Venus has a weak induced magnetosphere and an especially thick carbon dioxide atmosphere, which creates, together with its global sulfuric acid cloud cover, an extreme greenhouse effect. This results at the surface in a mean temperature of 737 K (464 °C; 867 °F) and a crushing pressure of 92 times that of Earth's at sea level, turning the air into a supercritical fluid, while at cloudy altitudes of 50 km (30 mi) above the surface, the pressure, temperature and also radiation are very much like at Earth's surface. Conditions possibly favourable for life on Venus have been identified at its cloud layers, with recent research having found indicative, but not convincing, evidence of life on the planet. Venus may have had liquid surface water early in its history, possibly enough to form oceans, but runaway greenhouse effects eventually evaporated any water, which then was taken into space by the solar wind.[22][23][24] Internally, Venus is thought to consist of a core, mantle, and crust, the latter releasing internal heat through its active volcanism, shaping the surface with large resurfacing instead of plate tectonics. Venus is one of two planets in the Solar System which have no moons.[25] Nonetheless, studies reported on 26 October 2023 suggest Venus, for the first time, may have had plate tectonics durng ancient times, and, as a result, may have had a more habitable environment, and possibly one capable of life forms.[26][27]

Venus has a rotation which has been slowed and turned against its orbital direction (retrograde) by the strong currents and drag of its atmosphere. This rotation produces, together with the time of 224.7 Earth days it takes Venus to complete an orbit around the Sun (a Venusian solar year), a Venusian solar day length of 117 Earth days, the longest in the Solar System, resulting in a Venusian year being just under two Venusian days long. The orbits of Venus and Earth are the closest between any two Solar System planets, approaching each other in synodic periods of 1.6 years. While this allows them to come closer to each other at inferior conjunction than any other pair of Solar System planets, Mercury stays on average closer to them and any other planet, as Mercury is the most central planet and passes by most frequently.[28] That said, Venus and Earth have between them the lowest difference in gravitational potential than any other pair of Solar System planets. This has allowed Venus to be the most accessible destination and attractive gravity assist waypoint for interplanetary flights.

In 1961, Venus became the target of the first interplanetary flight in human history, followed by many essential interplanetary firsts like the first soft landing on another planet in 1970. These probes made it evident that extreme greenhouse effects have created oppressive surface conditions, an insight that has crucially informed predictions about global warming on Earth.[29][30] This finding stopped most attention towards theories and the then popular science fiction about Venus being a habitable or inhabited planet. Crewed flights to Venus have been suggested nevertheless, either to flyby Venus, performing a gravity assist for reaching Mars faster and safer, or to enter the Venusian atmosphere and stay aloft at altitudes with conditions more comparable to Earth's surface, except atmospheric composition, than anywhere else in the Solar System. Contemporarily, Venus has again gained interest as a case for research into particularly the development of Earth-like planets and their habitability.

Physical characteristics

Venus to scale among the terrestrial planets of the Solar System, which are arranged by the order of their Inner Solar System orbits outward from the Sun (from left: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars)

Venus is one of the four terrestrial planets in the Solar System, meaning that it is a rocky body like Earth. It is similar to Earth in size and mass and is often described as Earth's "sister" or "twin".[31] Venus is close to spherical due to its slow rotation.[32] Venus has a diameter of 12,103.6 km (7,520.8 mi)—only 638.4 km (396.7 mi) less than Earth's—and its mass is 81.5% of Earth's. Conditions on the Venusian surface differ radically from those on Earth because its dense atmosphere is 96.5% carbon dioxide, with most of the remaining 3.5% being nitrogen.[33] The surface pressure is 9.3 megapascals (93 bars), and the average surface temperature is 737 K (464 °C; 867 °F), above the critical points of both major constituents and making the surface atmosphere a supercritical fluid out of mainly supercritical carbon dioxide and some supercritical nitrogen.

Atmosphere and climate

The atmosphere of Venus appears darker and lined with shadows. The shadows trace the prevailing wind direction.
Cloud structure of the Venusian atmosphere, made visible through ultraviolet imaging

Venus has a dense atmosphere composed of 96.5% carbon dioxide, 3.5% nitrogen—both exist as supercritical fluids at the planet's surface with a 6.5% density of water—[34] and traces of other gases including sulfur dioxide.[35] The mass of its atmosphere is 92 times that of Earth's, whereas the pressure at its surface is about 93 times that at Earth's—a pressure equivalent to that at a depth of nearly 1 km (58 mi) under Earth's oceans. The density at the surface is 65 kg/m3 (4.1 lb/cu ft), 6.5% that of water[34] or 50 times as dense as Earth's atmosphere at 293 K (20 °C; 68 °F) at sea level. The CO2-rich atmosphere generates the strongest greenhouse effect in the Solar System, creating surface temperatures of at least 735 K (462 °C; 864 °F).[36][37] This makes the Venusian surface hotter than Mercury's, which has a minimum surface temperature of 53 K (−220 °C; −364 °F) and maximum surface temperature of 700 K (427 °C; 801 °F),[38][39] even though Venus is nearly twice Mercury's distance from the Sun and thus receives only 25% of Mercury's solar irradiance. Because of its runaway greenhouse effect, Venus has been identified by scientists such as Carl Sagan as a warning and research object linked to climate change on Earth.[29][30]

Venus Temperature[40]
TypeSurface
Temperature
Maximum900 °F (482 °C)
Normal847 °F (453 °C)
Minimum820 °F (438 °C)

Venus's atmosphere is rich in primordial noble gases compared to that of Earth.[41] This enrichment indicates an early divergence from Earth in evolution. An unusually large comet impact[42] or accretion of a more massive primary atmosphere from solar nebula[43] have been proposed to explain the enrichment. However, the atmosphere is depleted of radiogenic argon, a proxy for mantle degassing, suggesting an early shutdown of major magmatism.[44][45]

Studies have suggested that billions of years ago, Venus's atmosphere could have been much more like the one surrounding the early Earth, and that there may have been substantial quantities of liquid water on the surface.[46][47][48] After a period of 600 million to several billion years,[49] solar forcing from rising luminosity of the Sun and possibly large volcanic resurfacing caused the evaporation of the original water and the current atmosphere.[50] A runaway greenhouse effect was created once a critical level of greenhouse gases (including water) was added to its atmosphere.[51] Although the surface conditions on Venus are no longer hospitable to any Earth-like life that may have formed before this event, there is speculation on the possibility that life exists in the upper cloud layers of Venus, 50 km (30 mi) up from the surface, where the atmospheric conditions are the most Earth-like in the Solar System,[52] with temperatures ranging between 303 and 353 K (30 and 80 °C; 86 and 176 °F), and the pressure and radiation being about the same as at Earth's surface, but with acidic clouds and the carbon dioxide air.[53][54][55] The putative detection of an absorption line of phosphine in Venus's atmosphere, with no known pathway for abiotic production, led to speculation in September 2020 that there could be extant life currently present in the atmosphere.[56][57] Later research attributed the spectroscopic signal that was interpreted as phosphine to sulfur dioxide,[58] or found that in fact there was no absorption line.[59][60]

Types of cloud layers, as well as temperature and pressure change by altitude in the atmosphere

Thermal inertia and the transfer of heat by winds in the lower atmosphere mean that the temperature of Venus's surface does not vary significantly between the planet's two hemispheres, those facing and not facing the Sun, despite Venus's slow rotation. Winds at the surface are slow, moving at a few kilometres per hour, but because of the high density of the atmosphere at the surface, they exert a significant amount of force against obstructions, and transport dust and small stones across the surface. This alone would make it difficult for a human to walk through, even without the heat, pressure, and lack of oxygen.[61]

Above the dense CO2 layer are thick clouds, consisting mainly of sulfuric acid, which is formed by sulfur dioxide and water through a chemical reaction resulting in sulfuric acid hydrate. Additionally, the clouds consist of approximately 1% ferric chloride.[62][63] Other possible constituents of the cloud particles are ferric sulfate, aluminium chloride and phosphoric anhydride. Clouds at different levels have different compositions and particle size distributions.[62] These clouds reflect, similar to thick cloud cover on Earth,[64] about 70% of the sunlight that falls on them back into space,[65] and since they cover the whole planet they prevent visual observation of Venus's surface. The permanent cloud cover means that although Venus is closer than Earth to the Sun, it receives less sunlight on the ground, with only 10% of the received sunlight reaching the surface,[66] resulting in average daytime levels of illumination at the surface of 14,000 lux, comparable to that on Earth "in the daytime with overcast clouds".[67] Strong 300 km/h (185 mph) winds at the cloud tops go around Venus about every four to five Earth days.[68] Winds on Venus move at up to 60 times the speed of its rotation, whereas Earth's fastest winds are only 10–20% rotation speed.[69]

The surface of Venus is effectively isothermal; it retains a constant temperature not only between the two hemispheres but between the equator and the poles.[4][70] Venus's minute axial tilt—less than 3°, compared to 23° on Earth—also minimises seasonal temperature variation.[71] Altitude is one of the few factors that affect Venusian temperatures. The highest point on Venus, Maxwell Montes, is therefore the coolest point on Venus, with a temperature of about 655 K (380 °C; 715 °F) and an atmospheric pressure of about 4.5 MPa (45 bar).[72][73] In 1995, the Magellan spacecraft imaged a highly reflective substance at the tops of the highest mountain peaks, a "Venus snow" that bore a strong resemblance to terrestrial snow. This substance likely formed from a similar process to snow, albeit at a far higher temperature. Too volatile to condense on the surface, it rose in gaseous form to higher elevations, where it is cooler and could precipitate. The identity of this substance is not known with certainty, but speculation has ranged from elemental tellurium to lead sulfide (galena).[74]

Although Venus has no seasons, in 2019, astronomers identified a cyclical variation in sunlight absorption by the atmosphere, possibly caused by opaque, absorbing particles suspended in the upper clouds. The variation causes observed changes in the speed of Venus's zonal winds and appears to rise and fall in time with the Sun's 11-year sunspot cycle.[75]

The existence of lightning in the atmosphere of Venus has been controversial[76] since the first suspected bursts were detected by the Soviet Venera probes.[77][78][79] In 2006–07, Venus Express clearly detected whistler mode waves, the signatures of lightning. Their intermittent appearance indicates a pattern associated with weather activity. According to these measurements, the lightning rate is at least half that on Earth,[80] however other instruments have not detected lightning at all.[76] The origin of any lightning remains unclear, but could originate from clouds or Venusian volcanoes.

In 2007, Venus Express discovered that a huge double atmospheric polar vortex exists at the south pole.[81][82] Venus Express discovered, in 2011, that an ozone layer exists high in the atmosphere of Venus.[83] On 29 January 2013, ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to "the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions."[84][85]

In December 2015, and to a lesser extent in April and May 2016, researchers working on Japan's Akatsuki mission observed bow shaped objects in the atmosphere of Venus. This was considered direct evidence of the existence of perhaps the largest stationary gravity waves in the solar system.[86][87][88]

Geography

Color-coded elevation map, showing the elevated terrae "continents" in yellow and minor features of Venus.

The Venusian surface was a subject of speculation until some of its secrets were revealed by planetary science in the 20th century. Venera landers in 1975 and 1982 returned images of a surface covered in sediment and relatively angular rocks.[89] The surface was mapped in detail by Magellan in 1990–91. The ground shows evidence of extensive volcanism, and the sulfur in the atmosphere may indicate that there have been recent eruptions.[90][91]

About 80% of the Venusian surface is covered by smooth, volcanic plains, consisting of 70% plains with wrinkle ridges and 10% smooth or lobate plains.[92] Two highland "continents" make up the rest of its surface area, one lying in the planet's northern hemisphere and the other just south of the equator. The northern continent is called Ishtar Terra after Ishtar, the Babylonian goddess of love, and is about the size of Australia. Maxwell Montes, the highest mountain on Venus, lies on Ishtar Terra. Its peak is 11 km (7 mi) above the Venusian average surface elevation.[93] The southern continent is called Aphrodite Terra, after the Greek mythological goddess of love, and is the larger of the two highland regions at roughly the size of South America. A network of fractures and faults covers much of this area.[94]

The absence of evidence of lava flow accompanying any of the visible calderas remains an enigma. The planet has few impact craters, demonstrating that the surface is relatively young, at 300–600 million years old.[95][96] Venus has some unique surface features in addition to the impact craters, mountains, and valleys commonly found on rocky planets. Among these are flat-topped volcanic features called "farra", which look somewhat like pancakes and range in size from 20 to 50 km (12 to 31 mi) across, and from 100 to 1,000 m (330 to 3,280 ft) high; radial, star-like fracture systems called "novae"; features with both radial and concentric fractures resembling spider webs, known as "arachnoids"; and "coronae", circular rings of fractures sometimes surrounded by a depression. These features are volcanic in origin.[97]

Most Venusian surface features are named after historical and mythological women.[98] Exceptions are Maxwell Montes, named after James Clerk Maxwell, and highland regions Alpha Regio, Beta Regio, and Ovda Regio. The last three features were named before the current system was adopted by the International Astronomical Union, the body which oversees planetary nomenclature.[99]

The longitude of physical features on Venus is expressed relative to its prime meridian. The original prime meridian passed through the radar-bright spot at the centre of the oval feature Eve, located south of Alpha Regio.[100] After the Venera missions were completed, the prime meridian was redefined to pass through the central peak in the crater Ariadne on Sedna Planitia.[101][102]

Rectified and colourized surface image, Venera 10 (1975)

The stratigraphically oldest tessera terrains have consistently lower thermal emissivity than the surrounding basaltic plains measured by Venus Express and Magellan, indicating a different, possibly a more felsic, mineral assemblage.[23][103] The mechanism to generate a large amount of felsic crust usually requires the presence of water ocean and plate tectonics, implying that habitable condition had existed on early Venus with large bodies of water at some point.[104] However, the nature of tessera terrains is far from certain.[105]

Studies reported on 26 October 2023 suggest that Venus, for the first time, may have had plate tectonics durng ancient times, and, as a result, may have had a more habitable environment, and possibly one capable of life forms.[26][27]

Volcanism

Radar mosaic of two 65 km (40 mi) wide (and less than 1 km (0.62 mi) high) pancake domes in Venus's Eistla region

Much of the Venusian surface appears to have been shaped by volcanic activity. Venus has several times as many volcanoes as Earth, and it has 167 large volcanoes that are over 100 km (60 mi) across. The only volcanic complex of this size on Earth is the Big Island of Hawaii.[97]:154 More than 85,000 volcanoes on Venus were identified and mapped.[106][107] This is not because Venus is more volcanically active than Earth, but because its crust is older and is not subject to the same erosion process. Earth's oceanic crust is continually recycled by subduction at the boundaries of tectonic plates, and has an average age of about 100 million years,[108] whereas the Venusian surface is estimated to be 300–600 million years old.[95][97]

Several lines of evidence point to ongoing volcanic activity on Venus. Sulfur dioxide concentrations in the upper atmosphere dropped by a factor of 10 between 1978 and 1986, jumped in 2006, and again declined 10-fold.[109] This may mean that levels had been boosted several times by large volcanic eruptions.[110][111] It has been suggested that Venusian lightning (discussed below) could originate from volcanic activity (i.e. volcanic lightning). In January 2020, astronomers reported evidence that suggests that Venus is currently volcanically active, specifically the detection of olivine, a volcanic product that would weather quickly on the planet's surface.[112][113]

This massive volcanic activity is fueled by a superheated interior, which models say could be explained by energetic collisions from when the planet was young. Impacts would have had significantly higher velocity than on Earth, both because Venus' orbit is faster due to its closer proximity to the Sun and because objects would require higher orbital eccentricities to collide with the planet.[114]

In 2008 and 2009, the first direct evidence for ongoing volcanism was observed by Venus Express, in the form of four transient localized infrared hot spots within the rift zone Ganis Chasma,[115][note 1] near the shield volcano Maat Mons. Three of the spots were observed in more than one successive orbit. These spots are thought to represent lava freshly released by volcanic eruptions.[116][117] The actual temperatures are not known, because the size of the hot spots could not be measured, but are likely to have been in the 800–1,100 K (527–827 °C; 980–1,520 °F) range, relative to a normal temperature of 740 K (467 °C; 872 °F).[118] In 2023, scientists reexamined topographical images of the Maat Mons region taken by the Magellan orbiter. Using computer simulations, they determined that the topography had changed during an 8-month interval, and have concluded that active volcanism was the cause.[119]

Craters

The plains of Venus
Impact craters on the surface of Venus (false-colour image reconstructed from radar data)

Almost a thousand impact craters on Venus are evenly distributed across its surface. On other cratered bodies, such as Earth and the Moon, craters show a range of states of degradation. On the Moon, degradation is caused by subsequent impacts, whereas on Earth it is caused by wind and rain erosion. On Venus, about 85% of the craters are in pristine condition. The number of craters, together with their well-preserved condition, indicates the planet underwent a global resurfacing event 300–600 million years ago,[95][96] followed by a decay in volcanism.[120] Whereas Earth's crust is in continuous motion, Venus is thought to be unable to sustain such a process. Without plate tectonics to dissipate heat from its mantle, Venus instead undergoes a cyclical process in which mantle temperatures rise until they reach a critical level that weakens the crust. Then, over a period of about 100 million years, subduction occurs on an enormous scale, completely recycling the crust.[97]

Venusian craters range from 3 to 280 km (2 to 174 mi) in diameter. No craters are smaller than 3 km, because of the effects of the dense atmosphere on incoming objects. Objects with less than a certain kinetic energy are slowed so much by the atmosphere that they do not create an impact crater.[121] Incoming projectiles less than 50 m (160 ft) in diameter will fragment and burn up in the atmosphere before reaching the ground.[122]

Internal structure

Spherical cross-section of Venus showing the different layers
The differentiated structure of Venus

Without data from reflection seismology or knowledge of its moment of inertia, little direct information is available about the internal structure and geochemistry of Venus.[123] The similarity in size and density between Venus and Earth suggests they share a similar internal structure: a core, mantle, and crust. Like that of Earth, the Venusian core is most likely at least partially liquid because the two planets have been cooling at about the same rate,[124] although a completely solid core cannot be ruled out.[125] The slightly smaller size of Venus means pressures are 24% lower in its deep interior than Earth's.[126] The predicted values for the moment of inertia based on planetary models suggest a core radius of 2,900–3,450 km.[125] This is in line with the first observation-based estimate of 3,500 km.[127]

The principal difference between the two planets is the lack of evidence for plate tectonics on Venus, possibly because its crust is too strong to subduct without water to make it less viscous. This results in reduced heat loss from the planet, preventing it from cooling and providing a likely explanation for its lack of an internally generated magnetic field.[128] Instead, Venus may lose its internal heat in periodic major resurfacing events.[95]

Magnetic field and core

In 1967, Venera 4 found Venus's magnetic field to be much weaker than that of Earth. This magnetic field is induced by an interaction between the ionosphere and the solar wind,[129][130] rather than by an internal dynamo as in the Earth's core. Venus's small induced magnetosphere provides negligible protection to the atmosphere against solar and cosmic radiation, reaching at elevations of 54 to 48 km Earth-like levels.[131][132]

The lack of an intrinsic magnetic field on Venus was surprising, given that it is similar to Earth in size and was expected to contain a dynamo at its core. A dynamo requires three things: a conducting liquid, rotation, and convection. The core is thought to be electrically conductive and, although its rotation is often thought to be too slow, simulations show it is adequate to produce a dynamo.[133][134] This implies that the dynamo is missing because of a lack of convection in Venus's core. On Earth, convection occurs in the liquid outer layer of the core because the bottom of the liquid layer is much higher in temperature than the top. On Venus, a global resurfacing event may have shut down plate tectonics and led to a reduced heat flux through the crust. This insulating effect would cause the mantle temperature to increase, thereby reducing the heat flux out of the core. As a result, no internal geodynamo is available to drive a magnetic field. Instead, the heat from the core is reheating the crust.[135]

One possibility is that Venus has no solid inner core,[136] or that its core is not cooling, so that the entire liquid part of the core is at approximately the same temperature. Another possibility is that its core has already been completely solidified. The state of the core is highly dependent on the concentration of sulfur, which is unknown at present.[135]

Another possibility is that the absence of a late, large impact on Venus (contra the Earth's "Moon-forming" impact) left the core of Venus stratified from the core's incremental formation, and without the forces to initiate/sustain convection, and thus a "geodynamo".[137]

The weak magnetosphere around Venus means that the solar wind is interacting directly with its outer atmosphere. Here, ions of hydrogen and oxygen are being created by the dissociation of water molecules from ultraviolet radiation. The solar wind then supplies energy that gives some of these ions sufficient velocity to escape Venus's gravity field. This erosion process results in a steady loss of low-mass hydrogen, helium, and oxygen ions, whereas higher-mass molecules, such as carbon dioxide, are more likely to be retained. Atmospheric erosion by the solar wind could have led to the loss of most of Venus's water during the first billion years after it formed.[138] However, the planet may have retained a dynamo for its first 2–3 billion years, so the water loss may have occurred more recently.[139] The erosion has increased the ratio of higher-mass deuterium to lower-mass hydrogen in the atmosphere 100 times compared to the rest of the solar system.[140]

Orbit and rotation

Mars circling the Sun further and slower than Earth
Venus is the second planet from the Sun, making a full orbit in about 224 days

Venus orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 0.72 AU (108 million km; 67 million mi), and completes an orbit every 224.7 days. Although all planetary orbits are elliptical, Venus's orbit is currently the closest to circular, with an eccentricity of less than 0.01.[4] Simulations of the early solar system orbital dynamics have shown that the eccentricity of the Venus orbit may have been substantially larger in the past, reaching values as high as 0.31 and possibly impacting early climate evolution.[141]

Venus and its rotation in respect to its revolution.

All planets in the Solar System orbit the Sun in an anticlockwise direction as viewed from above Earth's north pole. Most planets rotate on their axes in an anticlockwise direction, but Venus rotates clockwise in retrograde rotation once every 243 Earth days—the slowest rotation of any planet. This Venusian sidereal day lasts therefore longer than a Venusian year (243 versus 224.7 Earth days). Slowed by its strong atmospheric current the length of the day also fluctuates by up to 20 minutes.[142] Venus's equator rotates at 6.52 km/h (4.05 mph), whereas Earth's rotates at 1,674.4 km/h (1,040.4 mph).[note 2][146] Venus's rotation period measured with Magellan spacecraft data over a 500-day period is smaller than the rotation period measured during the 16-year period between the Magellan spacecraft and Venus Express visits, with a difference of about 6.5 minutes.[147] Because of the retrograde rotation, the length of a solar day on Venus is significantly shorter than the sidereal day, at 116.75 Earth days (making the Venusian solar day shorter than Mercury's 176 Earth days the 116-day figure is close to the average number of days it takes Mercury to slip underneath the Earth in its orbit).[11] One Venusian year is about 1.92 Venusian solar days.[148] To an observer on the surface of Venus, the Sun would rise in the west and set in the east,[148] although Venus's opaque clouds prevent observing the Sun from the planet's surface.[149]

Venus may have formed from the solar nebula with a different rotation period and obliquity, reaching its current state because of chaotic spin changes caused by planetary perturbations and tidal effects on its dense atmosphere, a change that would have occurred over the course of billions of years. The rotation period of Venus may represent an equilibrium state between tidal locking to the Sun's gravitation, which tends to slow rotation, and an atmospheric tide created by solar heating of the thick Venusian atmosphere.[150][151] The 584-day average interval between successive close approaches to Earth is almost exactly equal to 5 Venusian solar days (5.001444 to be precise),[152] but the hypothesis of a spin-orbit resonance with Earth has been discounted.[153]

Venus has no natural satellites.[154] It has several trojan asteroids: the quasi-satellite 2002 VE68[155][156] and two other temporary trojans, 2001 CK32 and 2012 XE133.[157] In the 17th century, Giovanni Cassini reported a moon orbiting Venus, which was named Neith and numerous sightings were reported over the following 200 years, but most were determined to be stars in the vicinity. Alex Alemi's and David Stevenson's 2006 study of models of the early Solar System at the California Institute of Technology shows Venus likely had at least one moon created by a huge impact event billions of years ago.[158] About 10 million years later, according to the study, another impact reversed the planet's spin direction and the resulting Tidal deceleration caused the Venusian moon gradually to spiral inward until it collided with Venus.[159] If later impacts created moons, these were removed in the same way. An alternative explanation for the lack of satellites is the effect of strong solar tides, which can destabilize large satellites orbiting the inner terrestrial planets.[154]

The orbital space of Venus has a dust ring-cloud,[160] with a suspected origin either from Venus–trailing asteroids,[161] interplanetary dust migrating in waves, or the remains of the Solar System's original circumstellar disc that formed the planetary system.[162]

Orbit in respect to Earth

A complex, spiral, floral pattern with five loops encircling the middle
Earth is positioned at the centre of the diagram, and the curve represents the direction and distance of Venus as a function of time.

Earth and Venus have a near orbital resonance of 13:8 (Earth orbits eight times for every 13 orbits of Venus).[163] Therefore they approach each other and reach inferior conjunction in synodic periods of 584 days, on average.[4] The path that Venus makes in relation to Earth viewed geocentrically draws a pentagram over five synodic periods, shifting every period by 144°. This pentagram of Venus is sometimes referred to as the petals of Venus due to the path's visual similarity to a flower.[164]

When Venus lies between Earth and the Sun in inferior conjunction, it makes the closest approach to Earth of any planet at an average distance of 41 million km (25 million mi).[4][note 3][165] Because of the decreasing eccentricity of Earth's orbit, the minimum distances will become greater over tens of thousands of years. From the year 1 to 5383, there are 526 approaches less than 40 million km (25 million mi); then, there are none for about 60,158 years.[166]

While Venus approaches Earth the closest, Mercury is more often the closest to Earth of all planets.[167] Venus has the lowest gravitational potential difference to Earth than any other planet, needing the lowest delta-v to transfer between them.[168][169]

Tidally Venus exerts the third strongest tidal force on Earth, after the Moon and the Sun, though significantly less.[170]

Observability

A photograph of the night sky taken from the seashore. A glimmer of sunlight is on the horizon. There are many stars visible. Venus is at the centre, much brighter than any of the stars, and its light can be seen reflected in the ocean.
Venus, pictured center-right, is always brighter than all other planets or stars at their maximal brightness, as seen from Earth. Jupiter is visible at the top of the image.

To the naked eye, Venus appears as a white point of light brighter than any other planet or star (apart from the Sun).[171] The planet's mean apparent magnitude is −4.14 with a standard deviation of 0.31.[18] The brightest magnitude occurs during the crescent phase about one month before or after an inferior conjunction. Venus fades to about magnitude −3 when it is backlit by the Sun.[172] The planet is bright enough to be seen in broad daylight,[173] but is more easily visible when the Sun is low on the horizon or setting. As an inferior planet, it always lies within about 47° of the Sun.[174]

Venus "overtakes" Earth every 584 days as it orbits the Sun.[4] As it does so, it changes from the "Evening Star", visible after sunset, to the "Morning Star", visible before sunrise. Although Mercury, the other inferior planet, reaches a maximum elongation of only 28° and is often difficult to discern in twilight, Venus is hard to miss when it is at its brightest. Its greater maximum elongation means it is visible in dark skies long after sunset. As the brightest point-like object in the sky, Venus is a commonly misreported "unidentified flying object".[175]

Phases

Diagram illustrating the phases of Venus
The phases of Venus and evolution of its apparent diameter

As it orbits the Sun, Venus displays phases like those of the Moon in a telescopic view. The planet appears as a small and "full" disc when it is on the opposite side of the Sun (at superior conjunction). Venus shows a larger disc and "quarter phase" at its maximum elongations from the Sun, and appears at its brightest in the night sky. The planet presents a much larger thin "crescent" in telescopic views as it passes along the near side between Earth and the Sun. Venus displays its largest size and "new phase" when it is between Earth and the Sun (at inferior conjunction). Its atmosphere is visible through telescopes by the halo of sunlight refracted around it.[174] The phases are clearly visible in a 4" telescope. Although naked eye visibility of Venus's phases is disputed, records exist of observations of its crescent.[176]

Daylight apparitions

When Venus is sufficiently bright with enough angular distance from the sun, it is easily observed in a clear daytime sky with the naked eye.[177] Astronomer Edmund Halley calculated its maximum naked eye brightness in 1716, when many Londoners were alarmed by its appearance in the daytime. French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte once witnessed a daytime apparition of the planet while at a reception in Luxembourg.[178] Another historical daytime observation of the planet took place during the inauguration of the American president Abraham Lincoln in Washington, D.C., on 4 March 1865.[179]

Transits

White disk with a small black dot projected on a screen
2012 transit of Venus, projected to a white card by a telescope

A transit of Venus is the appearance of Venus in front of the Sun, during inferior conjunction. Since the orbit of Venus is slightly inclined relative to Earth's orbit, most inferior conjunctions with Earth, which occur every synodic period of 1.6 years, do not produce a transit of Venus above Earth. Consequently Venus transits above Earth only occur when an inferior conjunction takes place during some days of June or December, the time where the orbits of Venus and Earth cross a straight line with the Sun.[180] This results in Venus transiting above Earth in a sequence of currently 8 years, 105.5 years, 8 years and 121.5 years, forming cycles of 243 years.

Historically, transits of Venus were important, because they allowed astronomers to determine the size of the astronomical unit, and hence the size of the Solar System as shown by Jeremiah Horrocks in 1639 with the first known observation of a Venus transit (after history's first observed planetary transit in 1631, of Mercury).[181]

Only seven Venus transits have been observed so far, since their occurrences were calculated in the 1621 by Johannes Kepler. Captain Cook sailed to Tahiti in 1768 to record the third observed transit of Venus, which subsequently resulted in the exploration of the east coast of Australia.[182][183]

The latest pair was June 8, 2004 and June 5–6, 2012. The transit could be watched live from many online outlets or observed locally with the right equipment and conditions.[184] The preceding pair of transits occurred in December 1874 and December 1882.

The next transit will occur in December 2117 and December 2125.[185]

Ashen light

A long-standing mystery of Venus observations is the so-called ashen light—an apparent weak illumination of its dark side, seen when the planet is in the crescent phase. The first claimed observation of ashen light was made in 1643, but the existence of the illumination has never been reliably confirmed. Observers have speculated it may result from electrical activity in the Venusian atmosphere, but it could be illusory, resulting from the physiological effect of observing a bright, crescent-shaped object.[186][78] The ashen light has often been sighted when Venus is in the evening sky, when the evening terminator of the planet is towards Earth.

Observation and exploration history

Early observation

Venus is in Earth's sky bright enough to be visible without aid, making it one of the star-like classical planets that human cultures have known and identified throughout history, particularly for being the third brightest object in Earth's sky after the Sun and the Moon. Because the movements of Venus appear to be discontinuous (it disappears due to its proximity to the sun, for many days at a time, and then reappears on the other horizon), some cultures did not recognize Venus as a single entity;[187] instead, they assumed it to be two separate stars on each horizon: the morning and evening star.[187] Nonetheless, a cylinder seal from the Jemdet Nasr period and the Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa from the First Babylonian dynasty indicate that the ancient Sumerians already knew that the morning and evening stars were the same celestial object.[188][187][189] In the Old Babylonian period, the planet Venus was known as Ninsi'anna, and later as Dilbat.[190] The name "Ninsi'anna" translates to "divine lady, illumination of heaven", which refers to Venus as the brightest visible "star". Earlier spellings of the name were written with the cuneiform sign si4 (= SU, meaning "to be red"), and the original meaning may have been "divine lady of the redness of heaven", in reference to the colour of the morning and evening sky.[191]

The Chinese historically referred to the morning Venus as "the Great White" (Tàibái 太白) or "the Opener (Starter) of Brightness" (Qǐmíng 啟明), and the evening Venus as "the Excellent West One" (Chánggēng 長庚).[192]

The ancient Greeks initially believed Venus to be two separate stars: Phosphorus, the morning star, and Hesperus, the evening star. Pliny the Elder credited the realization that they were a single object to Pythagoras in the sixth century BC,[193] while Diogenes Laërtius argued that Parmenides (early fifth century) was probably responsible for this discovery.[194] Though they recognized Venus as a single object, the ancient Romans continued to designate the morning aspect of Venus as Lucifer, literally "Light-Bringer", and the evening aspect as Vesper,[195] both of which are literal translations of their traditional Greek names.

In the second century, in his astronomical treatise Almagest, Ptolemy theorized that both Mercury and Venus were located between the Sun and the Earth. The 11th-century Persian astronomer Avicenna claimed to have observed a transit of Venus (although there is some doubt about it),[196] which later astronomers took as confirmation of Ptolemy's theory.[197] In the 12th century, the Andalusian astronomer Ibn Bajjah observed "two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun"; these were thought to be the transits of Venus and Mercury by 13th-century Maragha astronomer Qotb al-Din Shirazi, though this cannot be true as there were no Venus transits in Ibn Bajjah's lifetime.[198][note 4]

Venus and early modern astronomy

In 1610 Galileo Galilei observed with his telescope that Venus showed phases, despite remaining near the Sun in Earth's sky (first image). This proved that it orbits the Sun and not Earth, as predicted by Copernicus's heliocentric model and disproved Ptolemy's geocentric model (second image).

When the Italian physicist Galileo Galilei first observed the planet with a telescope in the early 17th century, he found it showed phases like the Moon, varying from crescent to gibbous to full and vice versa. When Venus is furthest from the Sun in the sky, it shows a half-lit phase, and when it is closest to the Sun in the sky, it shows as a crescent or full phase. This could be possible only if Venus orbited the Sun, and this was among the first observations to clearly contradict the Ptolemaic geocentric model that the Solar System was concentric and centred on Earth.[201][202]

The 1639 transit of Venus was accurately predicted by Jeremiah Horrocks and observed by him and his friend, William Crabtree, at each of their respective homes, on 4 December 1639 (24 November under the Julian calendar in use at that time).[203]

A hand-drawn sequence of images showing Venus passing over the edge of the Sun's disk, leaving an illusory drop of shadow behind
The "black drop effect" as recorded during the 1769 transit

The atmosphere of Venus was discovered in 1761 by Russian polymath Mikhail Lomonosov.[204][205] Venus's atmosphere was observed in 1790 by German astronomer Johann Schröter. Schröter found when the planet was a thin crescent, the cusps extended through more than 180°. He correctly surmised this was due to scattering of sunlight in a dense atmosphere. Later, American astronomer Chester Smith Lyman observed a complete ring around the dark side of the planet when it was at inferior conjunction, providing further evidence for an atmosphere.[206] The atmosphere complicated efforts to determine a rotation period for the planet, and observers such as Italian-born astronomer Giovanni Cassini and Schröter incorrectly estimated periods of about 24 h from the motions of markings on the planet's apparent surface.[207]

Early 20th century advances

Little more was discovered about Venus until the 20th century. Its almost featureless disc gave no hint what its surface might be like, and it was only with the development of spectroscopic and ultraviolet observations that more of its secrets were revealed.

Spectroscopic observations in the 1900s gave the first clues about the Venusian rotation. Vesto Slipher tried to measure the Doppler shift of light from Venus, but found he could not detect any rotation. He surmised the planet must have a much longer rotation period than had previously been thought.[208]

The first ultraviolet observations were carried out in the 1920s, when Frank E. Ross found that ultraviolet photographs revealed considerable detail that was absent in visible and infrared radiation. He suggested this was due to a dense, yellow lower atmosphere with high cirrus clouds above it.[209]

It had been noted that Venus had no discernible oblateness in its disk, suggesting a slow rotation, and some astronomers concluded based on this that it was tidally locked like Mercury was believed to be at the time; but other researchers had detected a significant quantity of heat coming from the planet's nightside, suggesting a quick rotation (a high surface temperature was not suspected at the time), confusing the issue.[210] Later work in the 1950s showed the rotation was retrograde.

Space age

Humanity's first interplanetary spaceflight was achieved in 1961 with the robotic space probe Venera 1 of the Soviet Venera program flying to Venus, though it lost contact en route.[211]

Therefore the first successful interplanetary mission was the Mariner 2 mission to Venus of the United States' Mariner program, passing on 14 December 1962 at 34,833 km (21,644 mi) above the surface of Venus and gathering data on the planet's atmosphere.[212][213]

Additionally radar observations of Venus were first carried out in the 1960s, and provided the first measurements of the rotation period, which were close to the actual value.[214]

Venera 3, launched in 1966, became humanity's first probe and lander to reach and impact another celestial body other than the Moon, but could not return data as it crashed into the surface of Venus. In 1967, Venera 4 was launched and successfully deployed science experiments in the Venusian atmosphere before impacting. Venera 4 showed the surface temperature was hotter than Mariner 2 had calculated, at almost 500 °C (932 °F), determined that the atmosphere was 95% carbon dioxide (CO
2
), and discovered that Venus's atmosphere was considerably denser than Venera 4's designers had anticipated.[215]

In an early example of space cooperation the data of Venera 4 was joined with the 1967 Mariner 5 data, analysed by a combined Soviet–American science team in a series of colloquia over the following year.[216]

On 15 December 1970, Venera 7 became the first spacecraft to soft land on another planet and the first to transmit data from there back to Earth.[217]

In 1974, Mariner 10 swung by Venus to bend its path toward Mercury and took ultraviolet photographs of the clouds, revealing the extraordinarily high wind speeds in the Venusian atmosphere. This was the first interplanetary gravity assist ever used, a technique which would be used by later probes.

Radar observations in the 1970s revealed details of the Venusian surface for the first time. Pulses of radio waves were beamed at the planet using the 300 m (1,000 ft) radio telescope at Arecibo Observatory, and the echoes revealed two highly reflective regions, designated the Alpha and Beta regions. The observations revealed a bright region attributed to mountains, which was called Maxwell Montes.[218] These three features are now the only ones on Venus that do not have female names.[99]

First view and first clear 180-degree panorama of Venus's surface as well as any other planet than Earth (1975, Soviet Venera 9 lander). Black-and-white image of barren, black, slate-like rocks against a flat sky. The ground and the probe are the focus.

In 1975, the Soviet Venera 9 and 10 landers transmitted the first images from the surface of Venus, which were in black and white. NASA obtained additional data with the Pioneer Venus project that consisted of two separate missions:[219] the Pioneer Venus Multiprobe and Pioneer Venus Orbiter, orbiting Venus between 1978 and 1992.[220] In 1982 the first colour images of the surface were obtained with the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 landers. After Venera 15 and 16 operated between 1983 and 1984 in orbit, conducting detailed mapping of 25% of Venus's terrain (from the north pole to 30°N latitude), the successful Soviet Venera program came to a close.[221]

Global topographic map of Venus, with all probe landings marked

In 1985 the Vega program with its Vega 1 and Vega 2 missions carried the last entry probes and carried the first ever extraterrestrial aerobots for the first time achieving atmospheric flight outside Earth by employing inflatable balloons.

Between 1990 and 1994, Magellan operated in orbit until deorbiting, mapping the surface of Venus. Furthermore, probes like Galileo (1990),[222] Cassini–Huygens (1998/1999), and MESSENGER (2006/2007) visited Venus with flybys flying to other destinations. In April 2006, Venus Express, the first dedicated Venus mission by the European Space Agency (ESA), entered orbit around Venus. Venus Express provided unprecedented observation of Venus's atmosphere. ESA concluded the Venus Express mission in December 2014 deorbiting it in January 2015.[223]

In 2010, the first successful interplanetary solar sail spacecraft IKAROS traveled to Venus for a flyby.

Active and future missions

WISPR visible light footage (2021) of the nightside, showing the hot faintly glowing surface, and its Aphrodite Terra as large dark patch, through the clouds, which prohibit such observations on the dayside when they are illuminated.[224][225]

As of 2023, the only active mission at Venus is Japan's Akatsuki, having achieved orbital insertion on 7 December 2015. Additionally, several flybys by other probes have been performed and studied Venus on their way, including NASA's Parker Solar Probe, and ESA's Solar Orbiter and BepiColombo.

There are currently several probes under development as well as multiple proposed missions still in their early conceptual stages.

Venus has been identified for future research as an important case for understanding:

  • the origins of the solar system and Earth, and if systems and planets like ours are common or rare in the universe.
  • how planetary bodies evolve from their primordial states to today's diverse objects.
  • the development of conditions leading to habitable environments and life.[226]

Search for life

Speculation on the possibility of life on Venus's surface decreased significantly after the early 1960s when it became clear that conditions were extreme compared to those on Earth. Venus's extreme temperatures and atmospheric pressure make water-based life, as currently known, unlikely.

Some scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the cooler, acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere.[227][228][229] Such speculations go back to 1967, when Carl Sagan and Harold J. Morowitz suggested in a Nature article that tiny objects detected in Venus's clouds might be organisms similar to Earth's bacteria (which are of approximately the same size):

While the surface conditions of Venus make the hypothesis of life there implausible, the clouds of Venus are a different story altogether. As was pointed out some years ago, water, carbon dioxide and sunlight—the prerequisites for photosynthesis—are plentiful in the vicinity of the clouds.[230]

In August 2019, astronomers led by Yeon Joo Lee reported that long-term pattern of absorbance and albedo changes in the atmosphere of the planet Venus caused by "unknown absorbers", which may be chemicals or even large colonies of microorganisms high up in the atmosphere of the planet, affect the climate.[75] Their light absorbance is almost identical to that of micro-organisms in Earth's clouds. Similar conclusions have been reached by other studies.[231]

In September 2020, a team of astronomers led by Jane Greaves from Cardiff University announced the likely detection of phosphine, a gas not known to be produced by any known chemical processes on the Venusian surface or atmosphere, in the upper levels of the planet's clouds.[232][57][56][233][234] One proposed source for this phosphine is living organisms.[235] The phosphine was detected at heights of at least 30 miles above the surface, and primarily at mid-latitudes with none detected at the poles. The discovery prompted NASA administrator Jim Bridenstine to publicly call for a new focus on the study of Venus, describing the phosphine find as "the most significant development yet in building the case for life off Earth".[236][237]

Subsequent analysis of the data-processing used to identify phosphine in the atmosphere of Venus has raised concerns that the detection-line may be an artefact. The use of a 12th-order polynomial fit may have amplified noise and generated a false reading (see Runge's phenomenon). Observations of the atmosphere of Venus at other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in which a phosphine absorption line would be expected did not detect phosphine.[238] By late October 2020, re-analysis of data with a proper subtraction of background did not show a statistically significant detection of phosphine.[239][240][241]

Members of the team around Greaves, are working as part of a project by the MIT to send with the rocket company Rocket Lab the first private interplanetary space craft, to look for organics by entering the atmosphere of Venus with a probe, set to launch in January 2025.[242]

Planetary protection

The Committee on Space Research is a scientific organization established by the International Council for Science. Among their responsibilities is the development of recommendations for avoiding interplanetary contamination. For this purpose, space missions are categorized into five groups. Due to the harsh surface environment of Venus, Venus has been under the planetary protection category two.[243] This indicates that there is only a remote chance that spacecraft-borne contamination could compromise investigations.

Human presence

Venus is the place of the first interplanetary human presence, mediated through robotic missions, with the first successful landings on another planet and extraterrestrial body other than the Moon. Currently in orbit is Akatsuki, and other probes routinely use Venus for gravity assist maneuvers capturing some data about Venus on the way.[244]

The only nation that has sent lander probes to the surface of Venus has been the Soviet Union,[note 5] which has been used by Russian officials to call Venus a "Russian planet".[245][246]

Crewed flight

Studies of routes for crewed missions to Mars have since the 1960s proposed opposition missions instead of direct conjunction missions with Venus gravity assist flybys, demonstrating that they should be quicker and safer missions to Mars, with better return or abort flight windows, and less or the same amount of radiation exposure from the flight as direct Mars flights.[247][248]

Early in the space age the Soviet Union and the United States proposed the TMK-MAVR and Manned Venus flyby crewed flyby missions to Venus, though they were never realized.

Habitation

Artist's rendering of a NASA High Altitude Venus Operational Concept (HAVOC) crewed floating outpost on Venus

While the surface conditions of Venus are inhospitable, the atmospheric pressure, temperature, and solar and cosmic radiation 50 km above the surface are similar to those at Earth's surface.[132][131] With this in mind, Soviet engineer Sergey Zhitomirskiy (Сергей Житомирский, 1929–2004) in 1971[249][250] and NASA aerospace engineer Geoffrey A. Landis in 2003[251] suggested the use of aerostats for crewed exploration and possibly for permanent "floating cities" in the Venusian atmosphere, an alternative to the popular idea of living on planetary surfaces such as Mars.[252][253] Among the many engineering challenges for any human presence in the atmosphere of Venus are the corrosive amounts of sulfuric acid in the atmosphere.[251]

NASA's High Altitude Venus Operational Concept is a mission concept that proposed a crewed aerostat design.

In culture

Venus is portrayed just to the right of the large cypress tree in Vincent van Gogh's 1889 painting The Starry Night.[254][255]

Venus is a primary feature of the night sky, and so has been of remarkable importance in mythology, astrology and fiction throughout history and in different cultures.

The English name of Venus was originally the ancient Roman name for it. Romans named Venus after their goddess of love, who in turn was based on the ancient Greek goddess of love Aphrodite,[256] who was herself based on the similar Sumerian religion goddess Inanna (which is Ishtar in Akkadian religion), all of whom were associated with the planet.[257][258] The weekday of the planet and these goddesses is Friday, named after the Germanic goddess Frigg, who has been associated with the Roman goddess Venus.

The eight-pointed star a symbol used in some cultures for Venus, and sometimes combined into a star and crescent arrangement. Here the eight pointed star is the Star of Ishtar, the Babylonian Venus goddess, alongside the solar disk of her brother Shamash and the crescent moon of their father Sin on a boundary stone of Meli-Shipak II, dating to the twelfth century BC.

Several hymns praise Inanna in her role as the goddess of the planet Venus.[187][258][257] Theology professor Jeffrey Cooley has argued that, in many myths, Inanna's movements may correspond with the movements of the planet Venus in the sky.[187] The discontinuous movements of Venus relate to both mythology as well as Inanna's dual nature.[187] In Inanna's Descent to the Underworld, unlike any other deity, Inanna is able to descend into the netherworld and return to the heavens. The planet Venus appears to make a similar descent, setting in the West and then rising again in the East.[187] An introductory hymn describes Inanna leaving the heavens and heading for Kur, what could be presumed to be, the mountains, replicating the rising and setting of Inanna to the West.[187] In Inanna and Shukaletuda and Inanna's Descent into the Underworld appear to parallel the motion of the planet Venus.[187] In Inanna and Shukaletuda, Shukaletuda is described as scanning the heavens in search of Inanna, possibly searching the eastern and western horizons.[259] In the same myth, while searching for her attacker, Inanna herself makes several movements that correspond with the movements of Venus in the sky.[187]

The Ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks possibly knew by the second millennium BC or at the latest by the Late Period, under mesopotamian influence that the morning star and an evening star were one and the same.[260][261] The Egyptians knew the morning star as Tioumoutiri and the evening star as Ouaiti.[262] They depicted Venus at first as a phoenix or heron (see Bennu),[260] calling it "the crosser" or "star with crosses",[260] associating it with Osiris, and later depicting it two-headed with human or falco heads, and associated it with Horus,[261] son of Isis (which during the even later Hellenistic period was together with Hathor identified with Aphrodite). The Greeks used the names Phōsphoros (Φωσϕόρος), meaning "light-bringer" (whence the element phosphorus; alternately Ēōsphoros (Ἠωσϕόρος), meaning "dawn-bringer"), for the morning star, and Hesperos (Ἕσπερος), meaning "Western one", for the evening star,[263] both children of dawn Eos and therefore grandchildren of Aphrodite. Though by the Roman era they were recognized as one celestial object, known as "the star of Venus", the traditional two Greek names continued to be used, though usually translated to Latin as Lūcifer and Vesper.[263][264]

Classical poets such as Homer, Sappho, Ovid and Virgil spoke of the star and its light.[265] Poets such as William Blake, Robert Frost, Letitia Elizabeth Landon, Alfred Lord Tennyson and William Wordsworth wrote odes to it.[266]

In India, Shukra Graha ("the planet Shukra") is named after the powerful saint Shukra. Shukra which is used in Indian Vedic astrology[267] means "clear, pure" or "brightness, clearness" in Sanskrit. One of the nine Navagraha, it is held to affect wealth, pleasure and reproduction; it was the son of Bhrgu, preceptor of the Daityas, and guru of the Asuras.[268] The word Shukra is also associated with semen, or generation.

Venus is known as Kejora in Indonesian and Malaysian Malay.

In Chinese the planet is called Jīn-xīng (金星), the golden planet of the metal element. Modern Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese cultures refer to the planet literally as the "metal star" (金星), based on the Five elements.[269][270][271][272]

The Maya considered Venus to be the most important celestial body after the Sun and Moon. They called it Chac ek,[273] or Noh Ek', "the Great Star".[274] The cycles of Venus were important to their calendar and were described in some of their books such as Maya Codex of Mexico and Dresden Codex.

Modern culture

With the invention of the telescope, the idea that Venus was a physical world and a possible destination began to take form.

The impenetrable Venusian cloud cover gave science fiction writers free rein to speculate on conditions at its surface; all the more so when early observations showed that not only was it similar in size to Earth, it possessed a substantial atmosphere. Closer to the Sun than Earth, the planet was often depicted as warmer, but still habitable by humans.[275] The genre reached its peak between the 1930s and 1950s, at a time when science had revealed some aspects of Venus, but not yet the harsh reality of its surface conditions. Findings from the first missions to Venus showed reality to be quite different and brought this particular genre to an end.[276] As scientific knowledge of Venus advanced, science fiction authors tried to keep pace, particularly by conjecturing human attempts to terraform Venus.[277]

Symbols

The symbol of a circle with a small cross beneath is the so-called Venus symbol, gaining its name for being used as the astronomical symbol for Venus. The symbol is of ancient Greek origin, and represents more generally femininity, adopted by biology as gender symbol for female,[278][279][280] like the Mars symbol for male and sometimes the Mercury symbol for hermaphrodite. This gendered association of Venus and Mars has been used to pair them heteronormatively, describing women and men stereotypically as being so different that they can be understood as coming from different planets, an understanding popularized in 1992 by the book titled Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus.[281][282]

The Venus symbol was also used in Western alchemy representing the element copper (like the symbol of Mercury is also the symbol of the element mercury),[279][280] and since polished copper has been used for mirrors from antiquity the symbol for Venus has sometimes been called Venus mirror, representing the mirror of the goddess, although this origin has been discredited as an unlikely origin.[279][280]

Beside the Venus symbol, many other symbols have been associated with Venus, other common ones are the crescent or particularly the star, as with the Star of Ishtar.

See also

Notes

  1. Misstated as "Ganiki Chasma" in the press release and scientific publication.[116]
  2. The equatorial speed of Earth is given as both about 1674.4 km/h and 1669.8 km/h by reliable sources. The simplest way to determine the correct figure is to multiply Earth's radius of 6378137 m (WGS84) and Earth's angular speed, 7.2921150×10−5 rad/s,[143] yielding 465.1011 m/s = 1674.364 km/h. The incorrect figure of 1669.8 km/h is obtained by dividing Earth's equatorial circumference by 24 h. But the correct speed must be relative to inertial space, so the stellar day of 86164.098903691 s/3600 = 23.934472 h (23 h 56 m 4.0989 s) must be used.[144] Thus 2π(6378.137 km)/23.934472 h = 1674.364 km/h.[145]
  3. It is important to be clear about the meaning of "closeness". In the astronomical literature, the term "closest planets" often refers to the two planets that approach each other the most closely. In other words, the orbits of the two planets approach each other most closely. However, this does not mean that the two planets are closest over time. Essentially because Mercury is closer to the Sun than Venus, Mercury spends more time in proximity to Earth; it could, therefore, be said that Mercury is the planet that is "closest to Earth when averaged over time". However, using this time-average definition of "closeness", it turns out that Mercury is the closest planet to all other planets in the solar system. For that reason, arguably, the proximity-definition is not particularly helpful. An episode of the BBC Radio 4 programme "More or Less" explains the different notions of proximity well.[165]
  4. Several claims of transit observations made by medieval Islamic astronomers have been shown to be sunspots.[199] Avicenna did not record the date of his observation. There was a transit of Venus within his lifetime, on 24 May 1032, although it is questionable whether it would have been visible from his location.[200]
  5. The American Pioneer Venus Multiprobe has brought the only non-Soviet probes to enter the atmosphere, as atmospheric entry probes only briefly signals were received from the surface.

References

  1. "Venusian". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 23 March 2020.
    "Venusian". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary.
  2. "Cytherean". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  3. "Venerean, Venerian". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  4. Williams, David R. (25 November 2020). "Venus Fact Sheet". NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Archived from the original on 11 May 2018. Retrieved 15 April 2021.
  5. Yeomans, Donald K. "Horizons Web-Interface for Venus (Major Body=2)". JPL Horizons On-Line Ephemeris System. Retrieved 30 November 2010.—Select "Ephemeris Type: Orbital Elements", "Time Span: 2000-01-01 12:00 to 2000-01-02". ("Target Body: Venus" and "Center: Sun" should be set to default.) Results are instantaneous osculating values at the precise J2000 epoch.
  6. Simon, J.L.; Bretagnon, P.; Chapront, J.; Chapront-Touzé, M.; Francou, G.; Laskar, J. (February 1994). "Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the Moon and planets". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 282 (2): 663–683. Bibcode:1994A&A...282..663S.
  7. Souami, D.; Souchay, J. (July 2012). "The solar system's invariable plane". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 543: 11. Bibcode:2012A&A...543A.133S. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219011. A133.
  8. Seidelmann, P. Kenneth; Archinal, Brent A.; A'Hearn, Michael F.; et al. (2007). "Report of the IAU/IAG Working Group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements: 2006". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. 98 (3): 155–180. Bibcode:2007CeMDA..98..155S. doi:10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y.
  9. Konopliv, A. S.; Banerdt, W. B.; Sjogren, W. L. (May 1999). "Venus Gravity: 180th Degree and Order Model" (PDF). Icarus. 139 (1): 3–18. Bibcode:1999Icar..139....3K. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.524.5176. doi:10.1006/icar.1999.6086. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 May 2010.
  10. "Planets and Pluto: Physical Characteristics". NASA. 5 November 2008. Archived from the original on 7 September 2006. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
  11. "Planetary Facts". The Planetary Society. Archived from the original on 11 May 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2016.
  12. Margot, Jean-Luc; Campbell, Donald B.; Giorgini, Jon D.; et al. (29 April 2021). "Spin state and moment of inertia of Venus". Nature Astronomy. 5 (7): 676–683. arXiv:2103.01504. Bibcode:2021NatAs...5..676M. doi:10.1038/s41550-021-01339-7. S2CID 232092194.
  13. "Report on the IAU/IAG Working Group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements of the planets and satellites". International Astronomical Union. 2000. Archived from the original on 12 May 2020. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
  14. Mallama, Anthony; Krobusek, Bruce; Pavlov, Hristo (2017). "Comprehensive wide-band magnitudes and albedos for the planets, with applications to exo-planets and Planet Nine". Icarus. 282: 19–33. arXiv:1609.05048. Bibcode:2017Icar..282...19M. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.09.023. S2CID 119307693.
  15. Haus, R.; Kappel, D.; Arnoldb, G. (July 2016). "Radiative energy balance of Venus based on improved models of the middle and lower atmosphere" (PDF). Icarus. 272: 178–205. Bibcode:2016Icar..272..178H. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.02.048. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2017. Retrieved 25 June 2019.
  16. "Atmospheres and Planetary Temperatures". American Chemical Society. 18 July 2013. Archived from the original on 27 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
  17. Herbst, K.; Banjac, S; Atri D.; Nordheim, T. A (1 January 2020). "Revisiting the cosmic-ray induced Venusian radiation dose in the context of habitability". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 633. Fig. 6. arXiv:1911.12788. Bibcode:2020A&A...633A..15H. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936968. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 208513344.
  18. Mallama, Anthony; Hilton, James L. (October 2018). "Computing apparent planetary magnitudes for The Astronomical Almanac". Astronomy and Computing. 25: 10–24. arXiv:1808.01973. Bibcode:2018A&C....25...10M. doi:10.1016/j.ascom.2018.08.002. S2CID 69912809.
  19. "Encyclopedia - the brightest bodies". IMCCE. Retrieved 29 May 2023.
  20. Lawrence, Pete (2005). "In Search of the Venusian Shadow". Digitalsky.org.uk. Archived from the original on 11 June 2012. Retrieved 13 June 2012.
  21. Walker, John. "Viewing Venus in Broad Daylight". Fourmilab Switzerland. Archived from the original on 29 March 2017. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
  22. Jakosky, Bruce M. (1999). "Atmospheres of the Terrestrial Planets". In Beatty, J. Kelly; Petersen, Carolyn Collins; Chaikin, Andrew (eds.). The New Solar System (4th ed.). Boston: Sky Publishing. pp. 175–200. ISBN 978-0-933346-86-4. OCLC 39464951.
  23. Hashimoto, George L.; Roos-Serote, Maarten; Sugita, Seiji; Gilmore, Martha S.; Kamp, Lucas W.; Carlson, Robert W.; Baines, Kevin H. (31 December 2008). "Felsic highland crust on Venus suggested by Galileo Near-Infrared Mapping Spectrometer data". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. Advancing Earth and Space Science. 113 (E5). Bibcode:2008JGRE..113.0B24H. doi:10.1029/2008JE003134. S2CID 45474562.
  24. Shiga, David (10 October 2007). "Did Venus's ancient oceans incubate life?". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 24 March 2009. Retrieved 17 September 2017.
  25. "Moons". NASA Solar System Exploration. Archived from the original on 19 October 2019. Retrieved 26 August 2019.
  26. Chang, Kenneth (26 October 2023). "Billions of Years Ago, Venus May Have Had a Key Earthlike Feature - A new study makes the case that the solar system's hellish second planet once may have had plate tectonics that could have made it more hospitable to life". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 26 October 2023. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
  27. Weller, Matthew B.; et al. (26 October 2023). "Venus's atmospheric nitrogen explained by ancient plate tectonics". Nature Astronomy. doi:10.1038/s41550-023-02102-w. Archived from the original on 27 October 2023. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
  28. Stockman, Tom; Monroe, Gabriel; Cordner, Samuel (2019). "Venus is not Earth's closest neighbor | Calculations and simulations confirm that on average, Mercury is the nearest planet to Earth-and to every other planet in the solar system". Physics Today. American Institute of Physics. doi:10.1063/PT.6.3.20190312a.
  29. Newitz, Annalee (11 December 2013). "Here's Carl Sagan's original essay on the dangers of climate change". Gizmodo. Archived from the original on 3 September 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
  30. Dorminey, Bruce (31 December 2018). "Galaxy May Be Littered With Dead Aliens Blindsided By Natural Climate Change". Forbes. Retrieved 21 April 2023.
  31. Lopes, Rosaly M. C.; Gregg, Tracy K. P. (2004). Volcanic worlds: exploring the Solar System's volcanoes. Springer Publishing. p. 61. ISBN 978-3-540-00431-8.
  32. Squyres, Steven W. (2016). "Venus". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on 28 April 2014. Retrieved 7 January 2016.
  33. Darling, David. "Venus". Encyclopedia of Science. Dundee, Scotland. Archived from the original on 31 October 2021. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
  34. Lebonnois, Sebastien; Schubert, Gerald (26 June 2017). "The deep atmosphere of Venus and the possible role of density-driven separation of CO2 and N2" (PDF). Nature Geoscience. Springer Science and Business Media LLC. 10 (7): 473–477. Bibcode:2017NatGe..10..473L. doi:10.1038/ngeo2971. ISSN 1752-0894. S2CID 133864520.
  35. Taylor, Fredric W. (2014). "Venus: Atmosphere". In Tilman, Spohn; Breuer, Doris; Johnson, T. V. (eds.). Encyclopedia of the Solar System. Oxford: Elsevier Science & Technology. ISBN 978-0-12-415845-0. Archived from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 12 January 2016.
  36. "Venus: Facts & Figures". NASA. Archived from the original on 29 September 2006. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
  37. "Venus". Case Western Reserve University. 13 September 2006. Archived from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 21 December 2011.
  38. Lewis, John S. (2004). Physics and Chemistry of the Solar System (2nd ed.). Academic Press. p. 463. ISBN 978-0-12-446744-6.
  39. Prockter, Louise (2005). "Ice in the Solar System" (PDF). Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest. 26 (2): 175–188. S2CID 17893191. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 September 2019. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
  40. "The Planet Venus". Archived from the original on 7 August 2021. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  41. Halliday, Alex N. (15 March 2013). "The origins of volatiles in the terrestrial planets". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 105: 146–171. Bibcode:2013GeCoA.105..146H. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2012.11.015. ISSN 0016-7037. Archived from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 14 July 2020.
  42. Owen, Tobias; Bar-Nun, Akiva; Kleinfeld, Idit (July 1992). "Possible cometary origin of heavy noble gases in the atmospheres of Venus, Earth and Mars". Nature. 358 (6381): 43–46. Bibcode:1992Natur.358...43O. doi:10.1038/358043a0. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 11536499. S2CID 4357750. Archived from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 14 July 2020.
  43. Pepin, Robert O. (1 July 1991). "On the origin and early evolution of terrestrial planet atmospheres and meteoritic volatiles". Icarus. 92 (1): 2–79. Bibcode:1991Icar...92....2P. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(91)90036-S. ISSN 0019-1035.
  44. Namiki, Noriyuki; Solomon, Sean C. (1998). "Volcanic degassing of argon and helium and the history of crustal production on Venus". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 103 (E2): 3655–3677. Bibcode:1998JGR...103.3655N. doi:10.1029/97JE03032. ISSN 2156-2202.
  45. O’Rourke, Joseph G.; Korenaga, Jun (1 November 2015). "Thermal evolution of Venus with argon degassing". Icarus. 260: 128–140. Bibcode:2015Icar..260..128O. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2015.07.009. ISSN 0019-1035.
  46. Ernst, Richard (3 November 2022). "Venus was once more Earth-like, but climate change made it uninhabitable". The Conversation. Retrieved 21 April 2023.
  47. Way, M. J.; Del Genio, Anthony D. (2020). "Venusian Habitable Climate Scenarios: Modeling Venus Through Time and Applications to Slowly Rotating Venus‐Like Exoplanets". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. American Geophysical Union (AGU). 125 (5). arXiv:2003.05704. Bibcode:2020JGRE..12506276W. doi:10.1029/2019je006276. ISSN 2169-9097.
  48. Way, M. J.; Del Genio, Anthony D.; Kiang, Nancy Y.; Sohl, Linda E.; Grinspoon, David H.; Aleinov, Igor; Kelley, Maxwell; Clune, Thomas (28 August 2016). "Was Venus the first habitable world of our solar system?". Geophysical Research Letters. American Geophysical Union (AGU). 43 (16): 8376–8383. arXiv:1608.00706. Bibcode:2016GeoRL..43.8376W. doi:10.1002/2016gl069790. ISSN 0094-8276. PMC 5385710. PMID 28408771.
  49. Grinspoon, David H.; Bullock, M. A. (October 2007). "Searching for Evidence of Past Oceans on Venus". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society. 39: 540. Bibcode:2007DPS....39.6109G.
  50. Steigerwald, Bill (2 November 2022). "NASA Study: Massive Volcanism May Have Altered Ancient Venus' Climate". NASA. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
  51. Kasting, J. F. (1988). "Runaway and moist greenhouse atmospheres and the evolution of Earth and Venus". Icarus. 74 (3): 472–494. Bibcode:1988Icar...74..472K. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(88)90116-9. PMID 11538226. Archived from the original on 7 December 2019. Retrieved 25 June 2019.
  52. Tillman, Nola Taylor (18 October 2018). "Venus' Atmosphere: Composition, Climate and Weather". Space.com. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
  53. Mullen, Leslie (13 November 2002). "Venusian Cloud Colonies". Astrobiology Magazine. Archived from the original on 16 August 2014.
  54. Landis, Geoffrey A. (July 2003). "Astrobiology: The Case for Venus" (PDF). Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 56 (7–8): 250–254. Bibcode:2003JBIS...56..250L. NASA/TM—2003-212310. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 August 2011.
  55. Cockell, Charles S. (December 1999). "Life on Venus". Planetary and Space Science. 47 (12): 1487–1501. Bibcode:1999P&SS...47.1487C. doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(99)00036-7.
  56. Drake, Nadia (14 September 2020). "Possible sign of life on Venus stirs up heated debate". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 14 September 2020. Retrieved 14 September 2020.
  57. Greaves, J. S.; Richards, A. M. S.; Bains, W.; Rimmer, P. B.; Sagawa, H.; Clements, D. L.; Seager, S.; Petkowski, J. J.; Sousa-Silva, Clara; Ranjan, Sukrit; Drabek-Maunder, Emily; Fraser, Helen J.; Cartwright, Annabel; Mueller-Wodarg, Ingo; Zhan, Zhuchang; Friberg, Per; Coulson, Iain; Lee, E’lisa; Hoge, Jim (2020). "Phosphine gas in the cloud decks of Venus". Nature Astronomy. 5 (7): 655–664. arXiv:2009.06593. Bibcode:2021NatAs...5..655G. doi:10.1038/s41550-020-1174-4. S2CID 221655755. Archived from the original on 14 September 2020. Retrieved 14 September 2020.
  58. Lincowski, Andrew P.; Meadows, Victoria S.; Crisp, David; Akins, Alex B.; Schwieterman, Edward W.; Arney, Giada N.; Wong, Michael L.; Steffes, Paul G.; Parenteau, M. Niki; Domagal-Goldman, Shawn (2021). "Claimed Detection of PH3 in the Clouds of Venus is Consistent with Mesospheric SO2". The Astrophysical Journal. 908 (2): L44. arXiv:2101.09837. Bibcode:2021ApJ...908L..44L. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/abde47. S2CID 231699227.
  59. Beall, Abigail (21 October 2020). "More doubts cast on potential signs of life on Venus". New Scientist. doi:10.1016/S0262-4079(20)31910-2. S2CID 229020261. Retrieved 29 January 2023.
  60. Snellen, I. A. G.; Guzman-Ramirez, L.; Hogerheijde, M. R.; Hygate, A. P. S.; van der Tak, F. F. S. (December 2020). "Re-analysis of the 267 GHz ALMA observations of Venus". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 644: L2. arXiv:2010.09761. Bibcode:2020A&A...644L...2S. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039717. S2CID 224803085. Retrieved 29 January 2023.
  61. Moshkin, B. E.; Ekonomov, A. P.; Golovin, Iu. M. (1979). "Dust on the surface of Venus". Kosmicheskie Issledovaniia (Cosmic Research). 17 (2): 280–285. Bibcode:1979CosRe..17..232M.
  62. Krasnopolsky, V. A.; Parshev, V. A. (1981). "Chemical composition of the atmosphere of Venus". Nature. 292 (5824): 610–613. Bibcode:1981Natur.292..610K. doi:10.1038/292610a0. S2CID 4369293.
  63. Krasnopolsky, Vladimir A. (2006). "Chemical composition of Venus atmosphere and clouds: Some unsolved problems". Planetary and Space Science. 54 (13–14): 1352–1359. Bibcode:2006P&SS...54.1352K. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2006.04.019.
  64. Siegel, Ethan (14 July 2021). "This Is Why Venus Is The Brightest, Most Extreme Planet We Can See". Forbes. Retrieved 11 June 2023.
  65. Davis, Margaret (14 July 2021). "Why Is Venus So Bright? Here's How Its Proximity to Earth, Highly Reflected Clouds Affects It". Science Times. Retrieved 11 June 2023.
  66. "Venus and Earth: worlds apart – Transit of Venus blog". ESA Blog Navigator – Navigator page for active ESA blogs. 31 May 2012. Retrieved 11 June 2023.
  67. "The Unveiling of Venus: Hot and Stifling". Science News. 109 (25): 388–389. 19 June 1976. doi:10.2307/3960800. JSTOR 3960800. 100 watts per square meter ... 14,000 lux ... corresponds to ... daytime with overcast clouds
  68. Rossow, W. B.; del Genio, A. D.; Eichler, T. (1990). "Cloud-tracked winds from Pioneer Venus OCPP images". Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 47 (17): 2053–2084. Bibcode:1990JAtS...47.2053R. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1990)047<2053:CTWFVO>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0469.
  69. Normile, Dennis (7 May 2010). "Mission to probe Venus's curious winds and test solar sail for propulsion". Science. 328 (5979): 677. Bibcode:2010Sci...328..677N. doi:10.1126/science.328.5979.677-a. PMID 20448159.
  70. Lorenz, Ralph D.; Lunine, Jonathan I.; Withers, Paul G.; McKay, Christopher P. (1 February 2001). "Titan, Mars and Earth: Entropy Production by Latitudinal Heat Transport" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. Ames Research Center, University of Arizona Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. 28 (3): 415–418. Bibcode:2001GeoRL..28..415L. doi:10.1029/2000GL012336. S2CID 15670045. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 21 August 2007.
  71. "Interplanetary Seasons". NASA Science. NASA. 19 June 2000. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
  72. Basilevsky, A. T.; Head, J. W. (2003). "The surface of Venus". Reports on Progress in Physics. 66 (10): 1699–1734. Bibcode:2003RPPh...66.1699B. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/66/10/R04. S2CID 13338382. Archived from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
  73. McGill, G. E.; Stofan, E. R.; Smrekar, S. E. (2010). "Venus tectonics". In Watters, T. R.; Schultz, R. A. (eds.). Planetary Tectonics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 81–120. ISBN 978-0-521-76573-2. Archived from the original on 23 June 2016. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
  74. Otten, Carolyn Jones (2004). ""Heavy metal" snow on Venus is lead sulfide". Washington University in St. Louis. Archived from the original on 15 April 2008. Retrieved 21 August 2007.
  75. Lee, Yeon Joo; Jessup, Kandis-Lea; Perez-Hoyos, Santiago; Titov, Dmitrij V.; Lebonnois, Sebastien; Peralta, Javier; Horinouchi, Takeshi; Imamura, Takeshi; Limaye, Sanjay; Marcq, Emmanuel; Takagi, Masahiro; Yamazaki, Atsushi; Yamada, Manabu; Watanabe, Shigeto; Murakami, Shin-ya; Ogohara, Kazunori; McClintock, William M.; Holsclaw, Gregory; Roman, Anthony (26 August 2019). "Long-term Variations of Venus's 365 nm Albedo Observed by Venus Express, Akatsuki, MESSENGER, and the Hubble Space Telescope". The Astronomical Journal. 158 (3): 126. arXiv:1907.09683. Bibcode:2019AJ....158..126L. doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab3120. S2CID 198179774.
  76. Lorenz, Ralph D. (20 June 2018). "Lightning detection on Venus: a critical review". Progress in Earth and Planetary Science. 5 (1): 34. Bibcode:2018PEPS....5...34L. doi:10.1186/s40645-018-0181-x. ISSN 2197-4284.
  77. Kranopol'skii, V. A. (1980). "Lightning on Venus according to Information Obtained by the Satellites Venera 9 and 10". Cosmic Research. 18 (3): 325–330. Bibcode:1980CosRe..18..325K.
  78. Russell, C. T.; Phillips, J. L. (1990). "The Ashen Light". Advances in Space Research. 10 (5): 137–141. Bibcode:1990AdSpR..10e.137R. doi:10.1016/0273-1177(90)90174-X. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2015.
  79. "Venera 12 Descent Craft". National Space Science Data Center. NASA. Archived from the original on 23 May 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2015.
  80. Russell, C. T.; Zhang, T. L.; Delva, M.; Magnes, W.; Strangeway, R. J.; Wei, H. Y. (November 2007). "Lightning on Venus inferred from whistler-mode waves in the ionosphere" (PDF). Nature. 450 (7170): 661–662. Bibcode:2007Natur.450..661R. doi:10.1038/nature05930. PMID 18046401. S2CID 4418778. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 10 September 2015.
  81. Hand, Eric (November 2007). "European mission reports from Venus". Nature (450): 633–660. doi:10.1038/news.2007.297. S2CID 129514118.
  82. Staff (28 November 2007). "Venus offers Earth climate clues". BBC News. Archived from the original on 11 January 2009. Retrieved 29 November 2007.
  83. "ESA finds that Venus has an ozone layer too". European Space Agency. 6 October 2011. Archived from the original on 27 January 2012. Retrieved 25 December 2011.
  84. "When A Planet Behaves Like A Comet". European Space Agency. 29 January 2013. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 31 January 2013.
  85. Kramer, Miriam (30 January 2013). "Venus Can Have 'Comet-Like' Atmosphere". Space.com. Archived from the original on 3 May 2019. Retrieved 31 January 2013.
  86. Fukuhara, Tetsuya; Futaguchi, Masahiko; Hashimoto, George L.; Horinouchi, Takeshi; Imamura, Takeshi; Iwagaimi, Naomoto; Kouyama, Toru; Murakami, Shin-ya; Nakamura, Masato; Ogohara, Kazunori; Sato, Mitsuteru; Sato, Takao M.; Suzuki, Makoto; Taguchi, Makoto; Takagi, Seiko; Ueno, Munetaka; Watanabe, Shigeto; Yamada, Manabu; Yamazaki, Atsushi (16 January 2017). "Large stationary gravity wave in the atmosphere of Venus". Nature Geoscience. 10 (2): 85–88. Bibcode:2017NatGe..10...85F. doi:10.1038/ngeo2873.
  87. Rincon, Paul (16 January 2017). "Venus wave may be Solar System's biggest". BBC News. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2017.
  88. Chang, Kenneth (16 January 2017). "Venus Smiled, With a Mysterious Wave Across Its Atmosphere". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 15 July 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2017.
  89. Mueller, Nils (2014). "Venus Surface and Interior". In Tilman, Spohn; Breuer, Doris; Johnson, T. V. (eds.). Encyclopedia of the Solar System (3rd ed.). Oxford: Elsevier Science & Technology. ISBN 978-0-12-415845-0. Archived from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 12 January 2016.
  90. Esposito, Larry W. (9 March 1984). "Sulfur Dioxide: Episodic Injection Shows Evidence for Active Venus Volcanism". Science. 223 (4640): 1072–1074. Bibcode:1984Sci...223.1072E. doi:10.1126/science.223.4640.1072. PMID 17830154. S2CID 12832924. Archived from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
  91. Bullock, Mark A.; Grinspoon, David H. (March 2001). "The Recent Evolution of Climate on Venus" (PDF). Icarus. 150 (1): 19–37. Bibcode:2001Icar..150...19B. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.22.6440. doi:10.1006/icar.2000.6570. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 October 2003.
  92. Basilevsky, Alexander T.; Head, James W. III (1995). "Global stratigraphy of Venus: Analysis of a random sample of thirty-six test areas". Earth, Moon, and Planets. 66 (3): 285–336. Bibcode:1995EM&P...66..285B. doi:10.1007/BF00579467. S2CID 21736261.
  93. Jones, Tom; Stofan, Ellen (2008). Planetology: Unlocking the Secrets of the Solar System. National Geographic Society. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-4262-0121-9. Archived from the original on 16 July 2017. Retrieved 20 April 2017.
  94. Kaufmann, W. J. (1994). Universe. New York: W. H. Freeman. p. 204. ISBN 978-0-7167-2379-0.
  95. Nimmo, F.; McKenzie, D. (1998). "Volcanism and Tectonics on Venus". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 26 (1): 23–53. Bibcode:1998AREPS..26...23N. doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.26.1.23. S2CID 862354.
  96. Strom, Robert G.; Schaber, Gerald G.; Dawson, Douglas D. (25 May 1994). "The global resurfacing of Venus". Journal of Geophysical Research. 99 (E5): 10899–10926. Bibcode:1994JGR....9910899S. doi:10.1029/94JE00388. Archived from the original on 16 September 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2019.
  97. Frankel, Charles (1996). Volcanoes of the Solar System. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47770-3. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
  98. Batson, R.M.; Russell, J. F. (18–22 March 1991). "Naming the Newly Found Landforms on Venus" (PDF). Proceedings of the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference XXII. Houston, Texas. p. 65. Bibcode:1991pggp.rept..490B. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 12 July 2009.
  99. Young, Carolynn, ed. (1 August 1990). The Magellan Venus Explorer's Guide. California: Jet Propulsion Laboratory. p. 93. Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
  100. Davies, M. E.; Abalakin, V. K.; Bursa, M.; Lieske, J. H.; Morando, B.; Morrison, D.; Seidelmann, P. K.; Sinclair, A. T.; Yallop, B.; Tjuflin, Y. S. (1994). "Report of the IAU Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements of the Planets and Satellites". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. 63 (2): 127–148. Bibcode:1996CeMDA..63..127D. doi:10.1007/BF00693410. S2CID 189850694.
  101. Kenneth Seidelmann, P.; Archinal, B. A.; A’hearn, M. F.; Conrad, A.; Consolmagno, G. J.; Hestroffer, D.; Hilton, J. L.; Krasinsky, G. A.; Neumann, G.; Oberst, J.; Stooke, P.; Tedesco, E. F.; Tholen, D. J.; Thomas, P. C.; Williams, I. P. (July 2007). "Report of the IAU/IAG Working Group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements: 2006". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. 98 (3): 155–180. Bibcode:2007CeMDA..98..155S. doi:10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y.
  102. Young, Carolynn, ed. (1 August 1990). The Magellan Venus Explorer's Guide. California: Jet Propulsion Laboratory. pp. 99–100. Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
  103. Helbert, Jörn; Müller, Nils; Kostama, Petri; Marinangeli, Lucia; Piccioni, Giuseppe; Drossart, Pierre (2008). "Surface brightness variations seen by VIRTIS on Venus Express and implications for the evolution of the Lada Terra region, Venus". Geophysical Research Letters. 35 (11): L11201. Bibcode:2008GeoRL..3511201H. doi:10.1029/2008GL033609. ISSN 1944-8007.
  104. Petkowski, Dr. Janusz; Seager, Prof. Sara (18 November 2021). "Did Venus ever have oceans? - MIT". Venus Cloud Life - MIT. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
  105. Gilmore, Martha; Treiman, Allan; Helbert, Jörn; Smrekar, Suzanne (1 November 2017). "Venus Surface Composition Constrained by Observation and Experiment". Space Science Reviews. 212 (3): 1511–1540. Bibcode:2017SSRv..212.1511G. doi:10.1007/s11214-017-0370-8. ISSN 1572-9672. S2CID 126225959.
  106. "A new catalog pinpoints volcanic cones in the best available surface images of Venus – those gathered 30 years ago by NASA's Magellan spacecraft". skyandtelescope.org. Retrieved 16 April 2023.
  107. Hahn, Rebecca M.; Byrne, Paul K. (April 2023). "A Morphological and Spatial Analysis of Volcanoes on Venus". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 128 (4): e2023JE007753. Bibcode:2023JGRE..12807753H. doi:10.1029/2023JE007753. S2CID 257745255. With the Magellan synthetic-aperture radar full-resolution radar map left- and right-look global mosaics at 75 m-per-pixel resolution, we developed a global catalog of volcanoes on Venus that contains ~85,000 edifices, ~99% of which are <5 km in diameter. We find that Venus hosts far more volcanoes than previously mapped, and that although they are distributed across virtually the entire planet, size–frequency distribution analysis reveals a relative lack of edifices in the 20–100 km diameter range, which could be related to magma availability and eruption rate.
  108. Karttunen, Hannu; Kroger, P.; Oja, H.; Poutanen, M.; Donner, K. J. (2007). Fundamental Astronomy. Springer. p. 162. ISBN 978-3-540-34143-7. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
  109. Bauer, Markus (3 December 2012). "Have Venusian volcanoes been caught in the act?". European Space Agency. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
  110. Glaze, Lori S. (August 1999). "Transport of SO2 by explosive volcanism on Venus". Journal of Geophysical Research. 104 (E8): 18899–18906. Bibcode:1999JGR...10418899G. doi:10.1029/1998JE000619.
  111. Marcq, Emmanuel; Bertaux, Jean-Loup; Montmessin, Franck; Belyaev, Denis (January 2013). "Variations of sulfur dioxide at the cloud top of Venus's dynamic atmosphere". Nature Geoscience. 6 (1): 25–28. Bibcode:2013NatGe...6...25M. doi:10.1038/ngeo1650. S2CID 59323909. Archived from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
  112. Hall, Sannon (9 January 2020). "Volcanoes on Venus Might Still Be Smoking - Planetary science experiments on Earth suggest that the sun's second planet might have ongoing volcanic activity". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 9 January 2020. Retrieved 10 January 2020.
  113. Filiberto, Justin (3 January 2020). "Present-day volcanism on Venus as evidenced from weathering rates of olivine". Science. 6 (1): eaax7445. Bibcode:2020SciA....6.7445F. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aax7445. PMC 6941908. PMID 31922004.
  114. Early, Energetic Collisions Could Have Fueled Venus Volcanism: Study | Sci.News
  115. "Ganis Chasma". Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. USGS Astrogeology Science Center. Archived from the original on 13 October 2018. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
  116. Lakdawalla, Emily (18 June 2015). "Transient hot spots on Venus: Best evidence yet for active volcanism". The Planetary Society. Archived from the original on 20 June 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
  117. "Hot lava flows discovered on Venus". European Space Agency. 18 June 2015. Archived from the original on 19 June 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
  118. Shalygin, E. V.; Markiewicz, W. J.; Basilevsky, A. T.; Titov, D. V.; Ignatiev, N. I.; Head, J. W. (17 June 2015). "Active volcanism on Venus in the Ganiki Chasma rift zone". Geophysical Research Letters. 42 (12): 4762–4769. Bibcode:2015GeoRL..42.4762S. doi:10.1002/2015GL064088. S2CID 16309185.
  119. Kluger, Jeffrey (17 March 2023). "Why the Discovery of an Active Volcano on Venus Matters". Time. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
  120. Romeo, I.; Turcotte, D. L. (2009). "The frequency-area distribution of volcanic units on Venus: Implications for planetary resurfacing" (PDF). Icarus. 203 (1): 13–19. Bibcode:2009Icar..203...13R. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.03.036. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 December 2019. Retrieved 15 December 2018.
  121. Herrick, R. R.; Phillips, R. J. (1993). "Effects of the Venusian atmosphere on incoming meteoroids and the impact crater population". Icarus. 112 (1): 253–281. Bibcode:1994Icar..112..253H. doi:10.1006/icar.1994.1180.
  122. Morrison, David; Owens, Tobias C. (2003). The Planetary System (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 978-0-8053-8734-6.
  123. Goettel, K. A.; Shields, J. A.; Decker, D. A. (16–20 March 1981). "Density constraints on the composition of Venus". Proceedings of the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. Houston, TX: Pergamon Press. pp. 1507–1516. Bibcode:1982LPSC...12.1507G.
  124. Faure, Gunter; Mensing, Teresa M. (2007). Introduction to planetary science: the geological perspective. Springer eBook collection. Springer. p. 201. ISBN 978-1-4020-5233-0.
  125. Dumoulin, C.; Tobie, G.; Verhoeven, O.; Rosenblatt, P.; Rambaux, N. (June 2017). "Tidal constraints on the interior of Venus" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 122 (6): 1338–1352. Bibcode:2017JGRE..122.1338D. doi:10.1002/2016JE005249. S2CID 134766723. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 May 2020. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
  126. Aitta, A. (April 2012). "Venus' internal structure, temperature and core composition". Icarus. 218 (2): 967–974. Bibcode:2012Icar..218..967A. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2012.01.007. Archived from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 17 January 2016.
  127. O'Callaghan, Jonathan (29 April 2021). "We've measured the size of Venus's planetary core for the first time". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 2 May 2021. Retrieved 2 May 2021.
  128. Nimmo, F. (2002). "Crustal analysis of Venus from Magellan satellite observations at Atalanta Planitia, Beta Regio, and Thetis Regio". Geology. 30 (11): 987–990. Bibcode:2002Geo....30..987N. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0987:WDVLAM>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0091-7613. S2CID 13293506.
  129. Dolginov, Sh.; Eroshenko, E. G.; Lewis, L. (September 1969). "Nature of the Magnetic Field in the Neighborhood of Venus". Cosmic Research. 7: 675. Bibcode:1969CosRe...7..675D.
  130. Kivelson, G. M.; Russell, C. T. (1995). Introduction to Space Physics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45714-9.
  131. Patel, M.R.; Mason, J.P.; Nordheim, T.A.; Dartnell, L.R. (2022). "Constraints on a potential aerial biosphere on Venus: II. Ultraviolet radiation". Icarus. Elsevier BV. 373: 114796. Bibcode:2022Icar..37314796P. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2021.114796. ISSN 0019-1035. S2CID 244168415.
  132. Herbst, Konstantin; Banjac, Saša; Atri, Dimitra; Nordheim, Tom A. (24 December 2019). "Revisiting the cosmic-ray induced Venusian radiation dose in the context of habitability". Astronomy & Astrophysics. EDP Sciences. 633: A15. arXiv:1911.12788. Bibcode:2020A&A...633A..15H. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936968. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 208513344.
  133. Luhmann, J. G.; Russell, C. T. (1997). "Venus: Magnetic Field and Magnetosphere". In Shirley, J. H.; Fainbridge, R. W. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Planetary Sciences. New York: Chapman and Hall. pp. 905–907. ISBN 978-1-4020-4520-2. Archived from the original on 14 July 2010. Retrieved 19 July 2006.
  134. Stevenson, D. J. (15 March 2003). "Planetary magnetic fields" (PDF). Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 208 (1–2): 1–11. Bibcode:2003E&PSL.208....1S. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(02)01126-3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 August 2017. Retrieved 6 November 2018.
  135. Nimmo, Francis (November 2002). "Why does Venus lack a magnetic field?" (PDF). Geology. 30 (11): 987–990. Bibcode:2002Geo....30..987N. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0987:WDVLAM>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0091-7613. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
  136. Konopliv, A. S.; Yoder, C. F. (1996). "Venusian k2 tidal Love number from Magellan and PVO tracking data". Geophysical Research Letters. 23 (14): 1857–1860. Bibcode:1996GeoRL..23.1857K. doi:10.1029/96GL01589.
  137. Jacobson, Seth A.; Rubie, David C.; Hernlund, John; Morbidelli, Alessandro; Nakajima, Miki (2017). "Formation, stratification, and mixing of the cores of Earth and Venus". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. Elsevier BV. 474: 375. arXiv:1710.01770. Bibcode:2017E&PSL.474..375J. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2017.06.023. S2CID 119487513.
  138. Svedhem, Håkan; Titov, Dmitry V.; Taylor, Fredric W.; Witasse, Olivier (November 2007). "Venus as a more Earth-like planet". Nature. 450 (7170): 629–632. Bibcode:2007Natur.450..629S. doi:10.1038/nature06432. PMID 18046393. S2CID 1242297.
  139. O'Rourke, Joseph; Gillmann, Cedric; Tackley, Paul (April 2019). Prospects for an ancient dynamo and modern crustal remnant magnetism on Venus. 21st EGU General Assembly, EGU2019, Proceedings from the conference held 7–12 April 2019 in Vienna, Austria. Bibcode:2019EGUGA..2118876O. 18876.
  140. Donahue, T. M.; Hoffman, J. H.; Hodges, R. R.; Watson, A. J. (1982). "Venus Was Wet: A Measurement of the Ratio of Deuterium to Hydrogen". Science. 216 (4546): 630–633. Bibcode:1982Sci...216..630D. doi:10.1126/science.216.4546.630. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17783310. S2CID 36740141. Archived from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
  141. Kane, S. R.; Vervoort, P.; Horner, J.; Pozuelos, P. J. (September 2020). "Could the Migration of Jupiter Have Accelerated the Atmospheric Evolution of Venus?". Planetary Science Journal. 1 (2): 42–51. arXiv:2008.04927. Bibcode:2020PSJ.....1...42K. doi:10.3847/PSJ/abae63.
  142. "The length of a day on Venus is always changing - Space". EarthSky. 5 May 2021. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
  143. Petit, Gérard; Luzum, Brian (eds.), IERS Conventions (2010), IERS, p. 19, archived from the original on 30 September 2019, retrieved 16 April 2021
  144. IERS (13 March 2021), Useful Constants, L'Observatoire de Paris, archived from the original on 11 March 2019, retrieved 16 April 2021
  145. Earl, Michael A., Rotation Speed, Canadian Astronomy, Satellite Tracking and Optical Research (CASTOR), archived from the original on 17 July 2019, retrieved 16 April 2021
  146. Bakich, Michael E. (2000). "Rotational velocity (equatorial)". The Cambridge Planetary Handbook. Cambridge University Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-521-63280-5. Retrieved 31 January 2023.
  147. "Could Venus Be Shifting Gear?". Venus Express. European Space Agency. 10 February 2012. Archived from the original on 24 January 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2016.
  148. "Space Topics: Compare the Planets". The Planetary Society. Archived from the original on 18 February 2006. Retrieved 12 January 2016.
  149. Brunier, Serge (2002). Solar System Voyage. Translated by Dunlop, Storm. Cambridge University Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-521-80724-1. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 17 September 2017.
  150. Correia, Alexandre C. M.; Laskar, Jacques; De Surgy, Olivier Néron (May 2003). "Long-Term Evolution of the Spin of Venus, Part I: Theory" (PDF). Icarus. 163 (1): 1–23. Bibcode:2003Icar..163....1C. doi:10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00042-3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 September 2019. Retrieved 9 September 2006.
  151. Laskar, Jacques; De Surgy, Olivier Néron (2003). "Long-Term Evolution of the Spin of Venus, Part II: Numerical Simulations" (PDF). Icarus. 163 (1): 24–45. Bibcode:2003Icar..163...24C. doi:10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00043-5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 9 September 2006.
  152. Gold, T.; Soter, S. (1969). "Atmospheric Tides and the Resonant Rotation of Venus". Icarus. 11 (3): 356–66. Bibcode:1969Icar...11..356G. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(69)90068-2.
  153. Shapiro, I. I.; Campbell, D. B.; De Campli, W. M. (June 1979). "Nonresonance Rotation of Venus". Astrophysical Journal. 230: L123–L126. Bibcode:1979ApJ...230L.123S. doi:10.1086/182975.
  154. Sheppard, Scott S.; Trujillo, Chadwick A. (July 2009). "A Survey for Satellites of Venus". Icarus. 202 (1): 12–16. arXiv:0906.2781. Bibcode:2009Icar..202...12S. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.02.008. S2CID 15252548.
  155. Mikkola, S.; Brasser, R.; Wiegert, P.; Innanen, K. (July 2004). "Asteroid 2002 VE68: A Quasi-Satellite of Venus". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 351 (3): L63. Bibcode:2004MNRAS.351L..63M. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07994.x.
  156. De la Fuente Marcos, Carlos; De la Fuente Marcos, Raúl (November 2012). "On the Dynamical Evolution of 2002 VE68". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 427 (1): 728–39. arXiv:1208.4444. Bibcode:2012MNRAS.427..728D. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21936.x. S2CID 118535095.
  157. De la Fuente Marcos, Carlos; De la Fuente Marcos, Raúl (June 2013). "Asteroid 2012 XE133: A Transient Companion to Venus". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 432 (2): 886–93. arXiv:1303.3705. Bibcode:2013MNRAS.432..886D. doi:10.1093/mnras/stt454. S2CID 118661720.
  158. Musser, George (10 October 2006). "Double Impact May Explain Why Venus Has No Moon". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 7 January 2016.
  159. Tytell, David (10 October 2006). "Why Doesn't Venus Have a Moon?". Sky & Telescope. Archived from the original on 24 October 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2016.
  160. Frazier, Sarah (16 April 2021). "NASA's Parker Solar Probe Sees Venus Orbital Dust Ring". NASA. Retrieved 21 January 2023.
  161. Garner, Rob (12 March 2019). "What Scientists Found After Sifting Through Dust in the Solar System". NASA. Retrieved 21 January 2023.
  162. Rehm, Jeremy (15 April 2021). "Parker Solar Probe Captures First Complete View of Venus Orbital Dust Ring". JHUAPL. Retrieved 21 January 2023.
  163. Bazsó, A.; Eybl, V.; Dvorak, R.; Pilat-Lohinger, E.; Lhotka, C. (2010). "A survey of near-mean-motion resonances between Venus and Earth". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. 107 (1): 63–76. arXiv:0911.2357. Bibcode:2010CeMDA.107...63B. doi:10.1007/s10569-010-9266-6. S2CID 117795811.
  164. Ottewell, Guy (7 January 2022). "The 5 petals of Venus and its 8-year cycle". EarthSky.
  165. Harford, Tim (11 January 2019). "BBC Radio 4—More or Less, Sugar, Outdoors Play and Planets". BBC. Archived from the original on 12 January 2019. Retrieved 30 October 2019. Oliver Hawkins, more or less alumnus and statistical legend, wrote some code for us, which calculated which planet was closest to the Earth on each day for the past 50 years, and then sent the results to David A. Rothery, professor of planetary geosciences at the Open University.
  166. "Venus Close Approaches to Earth as predicted by Solex 11". Archived from the original on 9 August 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2009. Numbers generated by Solex
  167. "Venus is not Earth's closest neighbor". Physics Today. AIP Publishing. 12 March 2019. doi:10.1063/pt.6.3.20190312a. ISSN 1945-0699. S2CID 241077611.
  168. Petropoulos, Anastassios E.; Longuski, James M.; Bonfiglio, Eugene P. (2000). "Trajectories to Jupiter via Gravity Assists from Venus, Earth, and Mars". Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA). 37 (6): 776–783. Bibcode:2000JSpRo..37..776P. doi:10.2514/2.3650. ISSN 0022-4650.
  169. Taylor, Chris (9 July 2020). "Welcome to Cloud City: The case for going to Venus, not Mars". Mashable. Retrieved 21 October 2022.
  170. "Interplanetary Low Tide". Science Mission Directorate. 3 May 2000. Archived from the original on 4 June 2023. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
  171. Dickinson, Terrence (1998). NightWatch: A Practical Guide to Viewing the Universe. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books. p. 134. ISBN 978-1-55209-302-3. Archived from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 12 January 2016.
  172. Mallama, A. (2011). "Planetary magnitudes". Sky & Telescope. 121 (1): 51–56.
  173. Flanders, Tony (25 February 2011). "See Venus in Broad Daylight!". Sky & Telescope. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 11 January 2016.
  174. Espenak, Fred (1996). "Venus: Twelve year planetary ephemeris, 1995–2006". NASA Reference Publication 1349. NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center. Archived from the original on 17 August 2000. Retrieved 20 June 2006.
  175. "Identifying UFOs". Night Sky Network. Astronomical Society of the Pacific. Archived from the original on 10 April 2021. Retrieved 10 April 2021.
  176. Goines, David Lance (18 October 1995). "Inferential Evidence for the Pre-telescopic Sighting of the Crescent Venus". Goines.net. Archived from the original on 4 May 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
  177. "Viewing Venus in Broad Daylight". www.fourmilab.ch. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
  178. Chatfield, Chris (2010). "The Solar System with the naked eye". The Gallery of Natural Phenomena. Archived from the original on 13 June 2015. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
  179. Gaherty, Geoff (26 March 2012). "Planet Venus Visible in Daytime Sky Today: How to See It". Space.com. Archived from the original on 19 April 2017. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
  180. "2004 and 2012 Transits of Venus". NASA. 8 June 2004. Retrieved 2 May 2023.
  181. Kollerstrom, Nicholas (1998). "Horrocks and the Dawn of British Astronomy". University College London. Archived from the original on 26 June 2013. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
  182. Hornsby, T. (1771). "The quantity of the Sun's parallax, as deduced from the observations of the transit of Venus on June 3, 1769". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 61: 574–579. doi:10.1098/rstl.1771.0054. S2CID 186212060. Archived from the original on 9 May 2019. Retrieved 8 January 2008.
  183. Woolley, Richard (1969). "Captain Cook and the Transit of Venus of 1769". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 24 (1): 19–32. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1969.0004. ISSN 0035-9149. JSTOR 530738. S2CID 59314888.
  184. Boyle, Alan (5 June 2012). "Venus transit: A last-minute guide". NBC News. Archived from the original on 18 June 2013. Retrieved 11 January 2016.
  185. Espenak, Fred (2004). "Transits of Venus, Six Millennium Catalog: 2000 BCE to 4000 CE". Transits of the Sun. NASA. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 14 May 2009.
  186. Baum, R. M. (2000). "The enigmatic ashen light of Venus: an overview". Journal of the British Astronomical Association. 110: 325. Bibcode:2000JBAA..110..325B.
  187. Cooley, Jeffrey L. (2008). "Inana and Šukaletuda: A Sumerian Astral Myth". KASKAL. 5: 161–172. ISSN 1971-8608. Archived from the original on 24 December 2019. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
  188. Sachs, A. (1974). "Babylonian Observational Astronomy". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 276 (1257): 43–50. Bibcode:1974RSPTA.276...43S. doi:10.1098/rsta.1974.0008. S2CID 121539390.
  189. Hobson, Russell (2009). The Exact Transmission of Texts in the First Millennium B.C.E. (PDF) (Ph.D.). University of Sydney, Department of Hebrew, Biblical and Jewish Studies. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 26 December 2015.
  190. Enn Kasak, Raul Veede. Understanding Planets in Ancient Mesopotamia. Folklore Vol. 16. Mare Kõiva & Andres Kuperjanov, Eds. ISSN 1406-0957
  191. Heimpel, W. (1982). "A catalog of Near Eastern Venus deities". Syro-Mesopotamian Studies. Undena Publications. 4 (3): 9–22.
  192. Needham, Joseph (1959). Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 398. Bibcode:1959scc3.book.....N. ISBN 978-0-521-05801-8.
  193. Pliny the Elder (1991). Natural History II:36–37. Translated by Healy, John F. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, UK: Penguin. pp. 15–16.
  194. Burkert, Walter (1972). Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism. Harvard University Press. p. 307. ISBN 978-0-674-53918-1. Archived from the original on 9 June 2016. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
  195. Dobbin, Robert (2002). "An Ironic Allusion at "Aeneid" 1.374". Mnemosyne. Fourth series. Brill. 55 (6): 736–738. doi:10.1163/156852502320880285. JSTOR 4433390.
  196. Goldstein, Bernard R. (March 1972). "Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy". Isis. 63 (1): 39–47 [44]. Bibcode:1972Isis...63...39G. doi:10.1086/350839. S2CID 120700705.
  197. "AVICENNA viii. Mathematics and Physical Sciences". Encyclopedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 20 February 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2016.
  198. Ansari, S. M. Razaullah (2002). History of Oriental Astronomy. p. 137. ISBN 978-1-4020-0657-9. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  199. Vaquero, J. M.; Vázquez, M. (2009). The Sun Recorded Through History. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-387-92790-9. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2016.
  200. Kennard, Fredrick (2015). Thought Experiments: Popular Thought Experiments in Philosophy, Physics, Ethics, Computer Science & Mathematics. Lulu.com. p. 113. ISBN 978-1-329-00342-2. Archived from the original on 25 November 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2016.
  201. Palmieri, Paolo (2001). "Galileo and the discovery of the phases of Venus". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 21 (2): 109–129. Bibcode:2001JHA....32..109P. doi:10.1177/002182860103200202. S2CID 117985979.
  202. Fegley Jr, B. (2003). Holland, Heinrich D.; Turekian, Karl K. (eds.). Venus. pp. 487–507. ISBN 978-0-08-043751-4. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  203. Kollerstrom, Nicholas (2004). "William Crabtree's Venus transit observation" (PDF). Proceedings IAU Colloquium No. 196. 2004: 34–40. Bibcode:2005tvnv.conf...34K. doi:10.1017/S1743921305001249. S2CID 162838538. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 May 2016. Retrieved 10 May 2012.
  204. Marov, Mikhail Ya. (2004). Kurtz, D. W. (ed.). Mikhail Lomonosov and the discovery of the atmosphere of Venus during the 1761 transit. Transits of Venus: New Views of the Solar System and Galaxy, Proceedings of IAU Colloquium #196, held 7-11 June, 2004 in Preston, U.K. Vol. 2004. Cambridge University Press. pp. 209–219. Bibcode:2005tvnv.conf..209M. doi:10.1017/S1743921305001390.
  205. "Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on 25 July 2008. Retrieved 12 July 2009.
  206. Russell, H. N. (1899). "The Atmosphere of Venus". Astrophysical Journal. 9: 284–299. Bibcode:1899ApJ.....9..284R. doi:10.1086/140593. S2CID 123671250.
  207. Hussey, T. (1832). "On the Rotation of Venus". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 2 (11): 78–126. Bibcode:1832MNRAS...2...78H. doi:10.1093/mnras/2.11.78d. Archived from the original on 11 July 2020. Retrieved 25 August 2019.
  208. Slipher, V. M. (1903). "A Spectrographic Investigation of the Rotation Velocity of Venus". Astronomische Nachrichten. 163 (3–4): 35–52. Bibcode:1903AN....163...35S. doi:10.1002/asna.19031630303. Archived from the original on 27 October 2020. Retrieved 4 May 2020.
  209. Ross, F. E. (1928). "Photographs of Venus". Astrophysical Journal. 68: 57. Bibcode:1928ApJ....68...57R. doi:10.1086/143130.
  210. Martz, Edwin P., Jr. (1934). "Venus and life". Popular Astronomy. 42: 165. Bibcode:1934PA.....42..165M.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  211. Mitchell, Don (2003). "Inventing The Interplanetary Probe". The Soviet Exploration of Venus. Archived from the original on 12 October 2018. Retrieved 27 December 2007.
  212. Mayer, C. H.; McCullough, T. P.; Sloanaker, R. M. (January 1958). "Observations of Venus at 3.15-cm Wave Length". The Astrophysical Journal. 127: 1. Bibcode:1958ApJ...127....1M. doi:10.1086/146433.
  213. Jet Propulsion Laboratory (1962). Mariner-Venus 1962 Final Project Report (PDF) (Report). SP-59. NASA. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 February 2014. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
  214. Goldstein, R. M.; Carpenter, R. L. (1963). "Rotation of Venus: Period Estimated from Radar Measurements". Science. 139 (3558): 910–911. Bibcode:1963Sci...139..910G. doi:10.1126/science.139.3558.910. PMID 17743054. S2CID 21133097.
  215. Mitchell, Don (2003). "Plumbing the Atmosphere of Venus". The Soviet Exploration of Venus. Archived from the original on 30 September 2018. Retrieved 27 December 2007.
  216. "Report on the Activities of the COSPAR Working Group VII". Preliminary Report, COSPAR Twelfth Plenary Meeting and Tenth International Space Science Symposium. Prague, Czechoslovakia: National Academy of Sciences. 11–24 May 1969. p. 94.
  217. "Science: Onward from Venus". Time. 8 February 1971. Archived from the original on 21 December 2008. Retrieved 2 January 2013.
  218. Campbell, D. B.; Dyce, R. B.; Pettengill, G. H. (1976). "New radar image of Venus". Science. 193 (4258): 1123–1124. Bibcode:1976Sci...193.1123C. doi:10.1126/science.193.4258.1123. PMID 17792750. S2CID 32590584.
  219. Colin, L.; Hall, C. (1977). "The Pioneer Venus Program". Space Science Reviews. 20 (3): 283–306. Bibcode:1977SSRv...20..283C. doi:10.1007/BF02186467. S2CID 122107496.
  220. Williams, David R. (6 January 2005). "Pioneer Venus Project Information". NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center. Archived from the original on 15 May 2019. Retrieved 19 July 2009.
  221. Greeley, Ronald; Batson, Raymond M. (2007). Planetary Mapping. Cambridge University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-521-03373-2. Archived from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 19 July 2009.
  222. "Welcome to the Galileo Orbiter Archive Page". PDS Atmospheres Node. 18 October 1989. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  223. Howell, Elizabeth (16 December 2014). "Venus Express Out Of Gas; Mission Concludes, Spacecraft On Death Watch". Universe Today. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
  224. Hatfield, Miles (9 February 2022). "Parker Solar Probe Captures Visible Light Images of Venus' Surface". NASA. Archived from the original on 14 April 2022. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
  225. Wood, B. E.; Hess, P.; Lustig-Yaeger, J.; Gallagher, B.; Korwan, D.; Rich, N.; Stenborg, G.; Thernisien, A.; Qadri, S. N.; Santiago, F.; Peralta, J.; Arney, G. N.; Izenberg, N. R.; Vourlidas, A.; Linton, M. G.; Howard, R. A.; Raouafi, N. E. (9 February 2022). "Parker Solar Probe Imaging of the Night Side of Venus". Geophysical Research Letters. 49 (3): e2021GL096302. Bibcode:2022GeoRL..4996302W. doi:10.1029/2021GL096302. PMC 9286398. PMID 35864851.
  226. O’Rourke, Joseph G.; Wilson, Colin F.; Borrelli, Madison E.; Byrne, Paul K.; Dumoulin, Caroline; Ghail, Richard; Gülcher, Anna J. P.; Jacobson, Seth A.; Korablev, Oleg; Spohn, Tilman; Way, M. J.; Weller, Matt; Westall, Frances (2023). "Venus, the Planet: Introduction to the Evolution of Earth's Sister Planet". Space Science Reviews. Springer Science and Business Media LLC. 219 (1): 10. Bibcode:2023SSRv..219...10O. doi:10.1007/s11214-023-00956-0. hdl:20.500.11850/598198. ISSN 0038-6308. S2CID 256599851.
  227. Clark, Stuart (26 September 2003). "Acidic clouds of Venus could harbour life". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 16 May 2015. Retrieved 30 December 2015.
  228. Redfern, Martin (25 May 2004). "Venus clouds 'might harbour life'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 16 September 2020. Retrieved 30 December 2015.
  229. Dartnell, Lewis R.; Nordheim, Tom Andre; Patel, Manish R.; Mason, Jonathon P.; Coates, Andrew J.; Jones, Geraint H. (September 2015). "Constraints on a potential aerial biosphere on Venus: I. Cosmic rays". Icarus. 257: 396–405. Bibcode:2015Icar..257..396D. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2015.05.006.
  230. Sagan, Carl; Morowitz, Harold J. (16 September 1967). "Life in the Clouds of Venus?". Nature. 215 (5107): 1259–1260. doi:10.1038/2161198a0. S2CID 11784372. Archived from the original on 17 September 2020. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
  231. Anderson, Paul (3 September 2019). "Could microbes be affecting Venus' climate?". Earth & Sky. Archived from the original on 3 September 2019. Retrieved 3 September 2019.
  232. Bains, William; Petkowski, Janusz J.; Seager, Sara; Ranjan, Sukrit; Sousa-Silva, Clara; Rimmer, Paul B.; Zhan, Zhuchang; Greaves, Jane S.; Richards, Anita M. S. (2021). "Phosphine on Venus Cannot be Explained by Conventional Processes". Astrobiology. 21 (10): 1277–1304. arXiv:2009.06499. Bibcode:2021AsBio..21.1277B. doi:10.1089/ast.2020.2352. PMID 34283644. S2CID 221655331.
  233. Perkins, Sid (14 September 2020). "Curious and unexplained". Science. Archived from the original on 14 September 2020. Retrieved 14 September 2020.
  234. Seager, Sara; Petkowski, Janusz J.; Gao, Peter; Bains, William; Bryan, Noelle C.; Ranjan, Sukrit; Greaves, Jane (14 September 2020). "The Venusian Lower Atmosphere Haze as a Depot for Desiccated Microbial Life: A Proposed Life Cycle for Persistence of the Venusian Aerial Biosphere". Astrobiology. 21 (10): 1206–1223. arXiv:2009.06474. doi:10.1089/ast.2020.2244. PMID 32787733. S2CID 221127006.
  235. Sample, Ian (14 September 2020). "Scientists find gas linked to life in atmosphere of Venus". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
  236. Kooser, Amanda (14 September 2020). "NASA chief calls for prioritizing Venus after surprise find hints at alien life". CNet. Archived from the original on 15 September 2020. Retrieved 14 September 2020.
  237. @JimBridenstine (14 September 2020). "Life on Venus?" (Tweet) via Twitter.
  238. Plait, Phil (26 October 2020). "Update: Life Above Hell? Serious doubt cast on Venus phosphine finding". Syfy.com. Syfy. Archived from the original on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 26 October 2020.
  239. Snellen, I. A. G.; Guzman-Ramirez, L.; Hogerheijde, M. R.; Hygate, A. P. S.; van der Tak, F. F. S. (2020), "Re-analysis of the 267 GHZ ALMA observations of Venus", Astronomy & Astrophysics, 644: L2, arXiv:2010.09761, Bibcode:2020A&A...644L...2S, doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039717, S2CID 224803085
  240. Thompson, M. A. (2021), "The statistical reliability of 267-GHZ JCMT observations of Venus: No significant evidence for phosphine absorption", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters, 501: L18–L22, arXiv:2010.15188, doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slaa187
  241. Villanueva, Geronimo; Cordiner, Martin; Irwin, Patrick; de Pater, Imke; Butler, Bryan; Gurwell, Mark; Milam, Stefanie; Nixon, Conor; Luszcz-Cook, Statia; Wilson, Colin; Kofman, Vincent; Liuzzi, Giuliano; Faggi, Sara; Fauchez, Thomas; Lippi, Manuela; Cosentino, Richard; Thelen, Alexander; Moullet, Arielle; Hartogh, Paul; Molter, Edward; Charnley, Steve; Arney, Giada; Mandell, Avi; Biver, Nicolas; Vandaele, Ann; de Kleer, Katherine; Kopparapu, Ravi (2021), "No evidence of phosphine in the atmosphere of Venus from independent analyses", Nature Astronomy, 5 (7): 631–635, arXiv:2010.14305, Bibcode:2021NatAs...5..631V, doi:10.1038/s41550-021-01422-z, S2CID 236090264
  242. "Rocket Lab Probe - MIT". Venus Cloud Life - MIT. 7 March 2023. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
  243. National Research Council (2006). Assessment of Planetary Protection Requirements for Venus Missions: Letter Report. The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/11584. ISBN 978-0-309-10150-9. Archived from the original on 17 July 2015. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
  244. Frazier, Sarah (19 February 2021). "Parker Solar Probe Primed for Fourth Venus Flyby". NASA. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
  245. Kolirin, Lianne (18 September 2020). "Venus is a Russian planet—say the Russians". CNN. Archived from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved 21 September 2020.
  246. Leman, Jennifer (18 September 2020). "Venus Is a Russian Planet ... Says Russia". Popular Mechanics. Archived from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved 21 September 2020.
  247. Rao, Rahul (7 July 2020). "Astronauts bound for Mars should swing by Venus first, scientists say". Space.com. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  248. Izenberg, Noam R.; McNutt, Ralph L.; Runyon, Kirby D.; Byrne, Paul K.; MacDonald, Alexander (2021). "Venus Exploration in the New Human Spaceflight Age". Acta Astronautica. Elsevier BV. 180: 100–104. Bibcode:2021AcAau.180..100I. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2020.12.020. ISSN 0094-5765. S2CID 219558707.
  249. "Архив фантастики". Архив фантастики (in Russian). Archived from the original on 2 September 2021. Retrieved 2 September 2021.
  250. Badescu, Viorel; Zacny, Kris, eds. (2015). Inner Solar System. Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-19569-8. ISBN 978-3-319-19568-1.
  251. Landis, Geoffrey A. (2003). "Colonization of Venus". AIP Conference Proceedings. Vol. 654. pp. 1193–1198. doi:10.1063/1.1541418. Archived from the original on 11 July 2012.
  252. Tickle, Glen (5 March 2015). "A Look Into Whether Humans Should Try to Colonize Venus Instead of Mars". Laughing Squid. Archived from the original on 1 September 2021. Retrieved 1 September 2021.
  253. Warmflash, David (14 March 2017). "Colonization of the Venusian Clouds: Is 'Surfacism' Clouding Our Judgement?". Vision Learning. Archived from the original on 11 December 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2019.
  254. Whitney, Charles A. (September 1986). "The Skies of Vincent van Gogh". Art History. 9 (3): 356. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8365.1986.tb00206.x.
  255. Boime, Albert (December 1984). "Van Gogh's Starry Night: A History of Matter and a Matter of History" (PDF). Arts Magazine: 88. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 November 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
  256. "Aphrodite and the Gods of Love: Roman Venus (Getty Villa Exhibitions)". Getty. Retrieved 15 April 2023.
  257. Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea (1998), Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia, Greenwood, p. 203, ISBN 978-0313294976, retrieved 2 February 2023
  258. Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992). Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary. The British Museum Press. pp. 108–109. ISBN 978-0-7141-1705-8. Archived from the original on 20 November 2020. Retrieved 23 August 2020.
  259. Cooley, Jeffrey L. (2008). "Inana and Šukaletuda: A Sumerian Astral Myth". KASKAL. 5: 163–164. ISSN 1971-8608. Archived from the original on 24 December 2019. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
  260. Parker, R. A. (1974). "Ancient Egyptian Astronomy". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences. The Royal Society. 276 (1257): 51–65. Bibcode:1974RSPTA.276...51P. doi:10.1098/rsta.1974.0009. ISSN 0080-4614. JSTOR 74274. S2CID 120565237. Retrieved 16 May 2023.
  261. Quack, Joachim Friedrich (23 May 2019), "The Planets in Ancient Egypt", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Planetary Science, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190647926.013.61, ISBN 978-0-19-064792-6
  262. Cattermole, Peter John; Moore, Patrick (1997). Atlas of Venus. Cambridge University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-521-49652-0.
  263. "Lucifer". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 24 January 2020. Archived from the original on 24 January 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
  264. Cicero, Marcus Tullius (12 September 2005). De Natura Deorum. Archived from the original on 12 September 2005. Retrieved 3 February 2023..
  265. Atsma, Aaron J. "Eospheros & Hespheros". Theoi.com. Archived from the original on 14 July 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
  266. Sobel, Dava (2005). The Planets. Harper Publishing. pp. 53–70. ISBN 978-0-14-200116-5.
  267. Bhalla, Prem P. (2006). Hindu Rites, Rituals, Customs and Traditions: A to Z on the Hindu Way of Life. Pustak Mahal. p. 29. ISBN 978-81-223-0902-7.
  268. Behari, Bepin; Frawley, David (2003). Myths & Symbols of Vedic Astrology (2nd ed.). Lotus Press. pp. 65–74. ISBN 978-0-940985-51-3.
  269. De Groot, Jan Jakob Maria (1912). Religion in China: universism. a key to the study of Taoism and Confucianism. p. 300. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 8 January 2010. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  270. Crump, Thomas (1992). The Japanese numbers game: the use and understanding of numbers in modern Japan. Routledge. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-0415056090.
  271. Hulbert, Homer Bezaleel (1909). The passing of Korea. Doubleday, Page & company. p. 426. Retrieved 8 January 2010.
  272. "Sao Kim - VOER". Vietnam Open Educational Resources. Retrieved 26 December 2022.
  273. The Book of Chumayel: The Counsel Book of the Yucatec Maya, 1539-1638. Richard Luxton. 1899. pp. 6, 194. ISBN 9780894122446.
  274. Milbrath, Susan (1999). Star Gods of The Mayans : Astronomy in Art, Folklore, and Calendars. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. pp. 200–204, 383. ISBN 978-0-292-79793-2.
  275. Miller, Ron (2003). Venus. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-7613-2359-4.
  276. Dick, Steven (2001). Life on Other Worlds: The 20th-Century Extraterrestrial Life Debate. Cambridge University Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-521-79912-6.
  277. Seed, David (2005). A Companion to Science Fiction. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 134–135. ISBN 978-1-4051-1218-5. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
  278. Schott, G D (22 December 2005). "Sex symbols ancient and modern: their origins and iconography on the pedigree". BMJ. 331 (7531): 1509–1510. doi:10.1136/bmj.331.7531.1509. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 1322246. PMID 16373733.
  279. Stearn, William T. (17 August 1961). "The Male and Female Symbols of Biology". New Scientist (248): 412–413.
  280. Stearn, William T. (May 1968). "The Origin of the Male and Female Symbols of Biology". Taxon. 11 (4): 109–113. doi:10.2307/1217734. JSTOR 1217734. S2CID 87030547.
  281. Brammer, John Paul (10 February 2020). "Love/Hate Reads: 'Men Are From Mars, Women Are From Venus,' Revisited". VICE. Retrieved 17 April 2023.
  282. Morin, Amy (19 August 2016). "Why The Mars And Venus Conversations Must End: The Truth About Gender Differences In The Workplace". Forbes. Retrieved 17 April 2023.

Cartographic resources

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.