Weichselian glaciation

The Fennoscandian Ice Sheet of the Weichselian glaciation most likely grew out of a mountain glaciation of small ice fields and ice caps in the Scandinavian Mountains. The initial glaciation of the Scandinavian Mountains would have been enabled by moisture coming from the Atlantic Ocean and the mountains high altitude. Perhaps the best modern analogues to this early glaciation are the ice fields of Andean Patagonia.[1] Since the proximity to the temperate North Atlantic typically precludes ice growth in Scandinavia, changes in the North Atlantic are thought to be required for glaciation to develop in Scandinavia. The freezing and glaciation of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago could effect this by causing "relatively fresher" water from the Arctic and the North Pacific to flow east of Greenland disrupting the convection of North Atlantic Deep Water.[6] According to this view any closing of the Bering Strait that blockades the entering of North Pacific water to the Arctic Ocean would have been detrimental for the inception of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet.[6]

Jan Mangerud posits that parts of the Norwegian coast were likely free from glacier ice during most of the Weichselian prior to the Last Glacial Maximum.[7]

Between 38 and 28 ka BP there was a relatively warm period in Fennoscandia called the Ålesund interstadial. The interstadial receives its name from the Ålesund municipality in Norway where its existence was first established based on the local fossil record of shells.[8]

  Maximum extent of the ice (Brandenburg Stage) during the Weichselian in North Germany (red line).

  Greatest extent of the older Saalian glaciation (yellow line).

Note that the coastlines are modern; coastlines during the Weichselian were different as sea level was lower.

The growth of the ice sheet to its Last Glacial Maximum extent began after the Ålesund interstadial.[9]

By circa 26 ka BP, the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet reached the mid-Norwegian continental shelf break.[10] The growth of the ice sheet was accompanied by an eastward migration of the ice divide from the Scandinavian Mountains eastwards into Sweden and the Baltic Sea.[11] As the ice sheets in northern Europe grew prior to the Last Glacial Maximum, the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet coalesced with the ice sheet that was growing in the Barents Sea 24 ka BP (kiloannī or one thousand years Before Present) and with the ice sheet of the British Isles at about thousand years later. At this point the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet formed part of a larger Eurasian ice sheet complex—a contiguous glacial ice mass which spanned an area from Ireland to Novaya Zemlya.[11]

The central parts of the Weichsel ice sheet had cold-based conditions during the times of maximum extent. This means that in areas like north-east Sweden and northern Finland pre-existing landforms and deposits escaped glacier erosion and are particularly well preserved at present.[12] Also during times of maximum extent the ice sheet terminated to the east in a gently uphill terrain meaning that rivers drained into the glacier front and large proglacial lakes built up.[9]

The Last Glacial Maximum extent was first reached 22 ka BP in the southern boundary of the ice sheet in Denmark, Germany and Western Poland. In Eastern Poland, Lithuania, Belarus and Pskov Oblast in Russia the ice sheet reached its maximum extent about 19 ka BP. In the remainder of northwestern Russia the largest glacier advance occurred 17 ka BP.[13]

As the ice margin started to recede 22–17 ka BP Denmark (except Bornholm), Germany, Poland and Belarus were ice-free 16 ka BP. The ice margin then retreated until the Younger Dryas when the ice sheet stabilized. By this time, most of Götaland, Gotland, all of the Baltic states and the southeastern coast of Finland had been added to the ice-free regions. In Russia, Lake Ladoga, Lake Onega, the bulk of Kola Peninsula and the White Sea were free from ice during the Younger Dryas. Before the Younger Dryas, deglaciation had not been uniform and small ice sheet re-advances had occurred forming a series of end-moraine systems, notably those in Götaland.[13]

During deglaciation, meltwater formed numerous eskers and sandurs. In north-central Småland and southern Östergötland part of the meltwater was routed through a series of canyons.[14]

It is speculated that during the Younger Dryas a small glacier readvance in Sweden created a natural lock system that brought freshwater taxa such as Mysis and Salvelinus to lakes like Sommen that were never connected to the Baltic Ice Lake. The survival of these cold-water taxa into the present-day means they are glacial relicts.[15][upper-alpha 1]

When ice margin retreat resumed the ice sheet became increasingly concentrated in the Scandinavian Mountains (it had left Russia 10.6 ka BP and Finland 10.1 ka BP). Further retreat of the ice margin led the ice sheet to concentrate in two parts of the Scandinavian Mountains, one part in Southern Norway and another in Northern Sweden and Norway. These two centres were linked for a time. The linkage constituted a major drainage barrier that formed various large and ephemeral ice-dammed lakes. About 10.1 ka BP the linkage had disappeared and so did the Southern Norway centre of the ice sheet about a thousand years later. The northern centre remained a few hundred years more so that by 9.7 ka BP the eastern Sarek Mountains hosted the last remnant of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet.[13] As the ice sheet retreated to the Scandinavian Mountains this was not a return to its former mountain centred glaciation from which the ice sheet grew out; it was dissimilar in that the ice divide lagged behind as the ice mass concentrated in the west.[1]

It is not known if the ice sheet disintegrated into scattered remains before vanishing or if it shrank while maintaining its coherence as a single ice mass.[17] It is possible that while some ice remained east of Sarek Mountains parts of the ice sheet survived temporarily in the high mountains.[17] Remnants east of the Sarek Mountains formed various ephemeral ice-dammed lakes that caused numerous glacial lake outburst floods down the rivers of northernmost Sweden.[17]

Map of the Littorina Sea around 7000 years BP. Note the reduced area of Finland due to higher sea levels.

Isostatic adjustment bought by deglaciation is reflected in the shoreline changes of the Baltic Sea and other nearby bodies of water.[upper-alpha 2] In the Baltic Sea uplift has been greatest at the High Coast in the western Bothnian Sea. Within the High Coast the relict shoreline at 286 m in Skuleberget is at present the highest known point on Earth to have been uplifted by postglacial isostatic rebound.[19] North of the High Coast at Furuögrund off the coast of Skellefteå lies the area with the highest uplift rates at present with values of about 9 mm/yr.[19][20][21] Ongoing post-glacial rebound is thought to result in splitting of the Gulf of Bothnia into a southern gulf and a northern lake across Norra Kvarken no earlier than in about 2,000 years.[22] Isostatic rebound exposed a submarine joint valley landscape as Stockholm archipelago.[23][24]

Since deglaciation the rate of post-glacial rebound in the Kandalaksha Gulf has varied. Since the White Sea connected to the world's oceans uplift along the southern coast of the gulf has totaled 90 m. In the interval from 9,500–5,000 years ago the uplift rate was of 9–13 mm/yr. Prior to the Atlantic period the uplift rate had decreased to 5–5.5 mm/yr, to then rose briefly before arriving at the present uplift rate of 4 mm/yr.[25]

Emergence above sea level is thought to have resulted in the triggering of a series of landslides in western Sweden as pore pressure increased when the groundwater recharge zone came above sea level.[26]