Yurok

Fishing, hunting, and gathering remain important to tribal members. Basket weaving and woodcarving are important arts. A traditional hamlet of wooden plank buildings, called Sumeg, was built in 1990. The Jump Dance and Brush Dance remain part of tribal ceremonies.[10] The tribes involvement in condor reintroduction, along with traditional burning, environmental restoration, wildfire preparedness, the drought, and juvenile fish kill, was discussed with Governor Gavin Newsom when he visited in June 2021.[11]

The tribe owns and operates a casino, river jet boat tours and other tourist attractions.[12]

19th century Yurok spoons

They fished for salmon along rivers, gathered ocean fish and shellfish, hunted game, and gathered plants.[2] Yurok ate varied berries and meats, but whale meat was prized above others. Yuroks did not hunt whales, instead, they waited until a drift whale washed up onto the beach or place near the water and dried the flesh. Salmon is another vital source of food.[17]

Yurok basketweaver

The major currency of the Yurok nations was the dentalium shell (terkwterm). Alfred L. Kroeber wrote of the Yurok perception of the shell: "Since the direction of these sources is 'downstream' to them, they speak in their traditions of the shells living at the downstream and upstream ends of the world, where strange but enviable peoples live who suck the flesh of univalves."[18]

California condors are understood as beings of great spiritual power by the Indigenous people in the Pacific Northwest and California. Yurok, Wiyot, and other tribes use the shed feathers in ceremonies to treat the sick.[9] The Yurok Tribe Northern California Condor Restoration Program is working with the local Redwood National and State Parks to restore the California condor to the area where they were last spotted around 1892.[19] The Bald Hills are part of the Yurok Tribal lands. Due to the cultural and ecological importance of the condor, the tribe began a program in 2008 to reintroduce the condor.[20] While based on the latest scientific protocols, Yurok Traditional Ecological Knowledge provided by the tribal elders informs the restoration program.[21] In preparation, they have tested local wildlife for organochlorine pesticides such as DDT and for exposure to lead.[22] They built a re-introduction and handling facility and received a clear Environment Impact Statement.[23] An adult condor was brought in to mentor four juvenile birds who would be released. An adult not only serves as a role model but also enforces the social hierarchy that is crucial to the survival of a flock.[9] Two condors were released in May 2022 from a pen in Redwood National Park.[24] A third juvenile was released a few weeks later with the fourth being allowed outside the release pen in July.[25] Each bird must leave the program area voluntarily after entering and exiting a staging pen with the birds being monitored for their safety by researchers who remain hidden in a repurposed shipping container.[26] The staggered releases allow the social draw of still-captive condors to keep the freed birds nearby so the team can observe the birds, who are outfitted with GPS transmitters.[27] By mid-November, a total of eight birds had been released.[28]

In 1995, researchers observed that "control of reservation and allotment [of] natural resources has been withheld from them [Yurok people] under the auspices of scientific forest management." Managing the reservation for the benefit of the timber industry or a "fine stand of timber" prevented Yurok modes of subsistence. As such the researchers note that Yurok were divested from their forest resources for the following reasons: "by straightforward expropriation of their lands, as Yurok property rights were ignored and access to gathering sites was cut off; and through ecological change brought about by a shift in management regimes."[29]

Forest management impacts forests on Yurok lands, since the environment is interconnected despite political boundaries. In United States forestry programs, Indigenous peoples are only given the right to "alienate the land but not to manage the vegetation." In the case of the Yurok, "vegetation management and Yurok culture and economy are closely linked" and as a result "the increasing unsuitability of the changed forest for Yurok subsistence helped push the Yurok to sell their land."[29] The Yurok Fisheries Department works at reviving the streams and the runs of salmon and steelhead trout. Reforesting by tribal members helps to stabilize the banks of the waterways and reduce the sediment load.[17]

In 2010, 217 sacred artifacts were returned to the Yurok tribe by the Smithsonian Institution.[30][31][32] The condor feathers, headdresses and deerskins had been part of the Smithsonian's collection for almost 100 years and represent one of the largest Native American repatriations.[30][31][32] The regalia will be used in Yurok ceremonies and on display at the tribe's cultural center.[33]

Yurok Villages ('o'loolekw - "village") were composed of individual families that lived in separate, single-family homes.[34] The house was owned by the eldest male and in each lived several generations of men related on their father's side of the family as well as their wives, children, daughters’ husbands, unmarried relatives, and adopted kin.[35] Yurok villages also consisted of sweat houses and menstrual huts. Sweat houses were designated for men of an extended patrilineal family as a place to gather.[34] While during their menstruation cycles, women stayed in separate under-ground huts for ten days.[35] Additionally, inheritance of land was predominantly patrilineal. The majority of the estate was passed down to the fathers’ sons. Daughters and male relatives were also expected to acquire a portion of the estate.[36]

Yurok society had no chiefs, but in each village, a wealthy man known as a peyerk acted as leader, who was trained by elders. The peyerk's training would include a vision quest in which he would communicate with the natural environment and the spirit world. Peyerk from many villages came together to settle tribal disputes and also hosted tribal ceremonies. At these times, the peyerk would supply food and shelter for the Yurok people and special clothing for the dancers. Peyerk lived in homes at higher elevation, wore finer clothing, and sometimes spoke foreign languages.[4]

Yurok medicine people were usually women. Women would become shamans after dreaming of being told to do so. Another shaman would then assist her in a ritual dance. Shamans would use plants, prayer, and rituals to heal people and also performed ceremonies to ensure successful hunting, fishing, and gathering.[4]

Every year the Yurok came together for what was known as the World Renewal Ceremony, where songs and dances which had been passed on through many generations would be performed. Dancers would wear elaborate clothing for the occasion.[4]

Some sources refer to it Yurok society as socially stratified because communities were divided between syahhlew ("rich"), wa's'oyowok' / wa'soyowok' ("poor"), and ka'aal ("slaves").[35][36] The syahhlew were the only group allowed to perform religious duties. Furthermore, they had homes at higher elevations, wore nicer clothing, and spoke in a distinctive manner. The primary reason men became slaves was because they owed money to certain families. Nonetheless, slavery was not considered to be a significant institution.[35][36] Overall, the higher a man's social ranking was, the more valuable his life was considered.[34]

Yurok author Che-na-wah Weitch-ah-wah (Mrs. Lucy Thompson) in her wedding dress

When daughters got married, Yurok families would receive a payment from her husband. For the most part, girls were highly valued in the family.[35] The amount of money paid by a man determined the social status of the couple. A wealthy man, who could afford to pay a large sum, increased the couple and their children's rank within the community.[36] When married, both spouses held onto their personal properties but the bride lived with the groom's family and took his last name. Men who were unable to pay the full sum of money could pay half the cost for the bride. In doing so, the couple was considered “half-married.” Half-married couples lived with the bride's family and the groom would then become a slave for them. Furthermore, their children would take on the mother's last name.[35] In cases of divorce, either spouse could initiate their split. The most frequent reason for divorce was if the wife was infertile. If the woman wanted a divorce and to take the children with her, her family had to refund the husband for his initial payment.[36]