Economy of Turkey

Turkey has an emerging market economy, as defined by the International Monetary Fund.[37] The country is a founding member of the OECD (1961) and the G-20 major economies (1999). Since 1995, Turkey is a party to the European Union–Turkey Customs Union. Turkey is often classified as a newly industrialized country by economists and political scientists;[38][39][40] while Merrill Lynch, the World Bank, the IMF and The Economist magazine describe Turkey as an emerging market economy.[41][42][43] The World Bank classifies Turkey as an upper-middle income country in terms of the country's per capita GDP.[43] The CIA World Factbook adds Turkey to its list of developed countries (DCs) due to the country's status as a founding member of the OECD.[44] With a population of 84.6 million as of 2021,[45] Turkey is among the world's leading producers of agricultural products, textiles, motor vehicles, transportation equipment, construction materials, consumer electronics and home appliances.

Economy of Turkey
Levent business district in Istanbul
CurrencyTurkish lira (TRY, ₺)
Calendar year[1]
Trade organisations
G-20, OECD, EU Customs Union, WTO, MIKTA, BSEC, ECO, D-8, World Bank, IMF, AIIB
Country group
Statistics
Population 84,680,273 (2021)[5]
GDP
$853 billion (Nominal, 2022 est.)[6]
  • $3.32 trillion (PPP, 2022 est.)[6]
GDP rank
GDP growth
  • 2.8% (2018) 0.9% (2019)
  • 1.8% (2020) 11% (2021) 7.3% (Q1-2022)[7]
GDP per capita
  • $9,961 (Nominal, 2022)[6]
  • $38,759 (PPP, 2022)[6]
GDP per capita rank
  • 79th (Nominal, 2022 est.)[6]
  • 46th (PPP, 2022 est.)[6]
GDP by sector
  • agriculture: 6.8%
  • industry: 32.3%
  • services: 60.7%
  • (2017 est.)[8]
Inflation (CPI)
83.45% (September 2022)[9]
Population below poverty line
  • 8.4% (2018)[10]
  • 11.7% at risk of poverty or social exclusion (AROPE, 2019)[11]
  • 2.3% on less than $5.50/day (2020f)[12]
41.7 medium (2019)[13]
  • 0.820 very high (2019)[14] (48th)
  • 0.683 medium (2019)(48th)[15]
Labour force
  • 37,817,015 (2020)[16]
  • 45,1% employment rate (July 2021)[17]
  • about 3.2 million Turks work abroad[1]
Labour force by occupation
  • agriculture: 16.7%
  • industry/construction: 27.1%
  • services: 56.2%
  • (November 2020)[1]
Unemployment
  • 11.2% (December 2021)[18]
  • 21.3% youth unemployment rate (15 to 24 year-olds; November 2020)[19]
Average gross salary
TRY ~100,000 / $5,400 annual (2022)
TRY ~70,000 / $3,800 annual (2022)
Main industries
33rd (very easy, 2020)[20]
External
Exports $225.29 billion (26th) (2021, 12 month period)[21]
Export goods
Main export partners
Imports $271.42 billion (24th) (2021)[24]
Import goods
Main import partners
FDI stock
  • $180.3 billion (31 December 2017 est.)[1]
  • Abroad: $47.44 billion (31 December 2017 est.)[1]
Current account
 −$27.6 billion (2018)[27]
Gross external debt
 $452.4 billion (31 December 2017 est.) (29th)[1]
Public finances
Public debt
 40% of GDP (2021)[28]
Budget balance
−1.5% (of GDP) (2017 est.)[1]
Revenues172.8 billion (2017 est.)[1]
Expenses185.8 billion (2017 est.)[1]
Economic aiddonor: $6.182 billion, 0.79% of GNI.[29][30]
Credit rating
Foreign reserves
 $114.944 billion (January 2022) (Net reserves excluding swap: $-56,7 billion)[34] (24th)
Main data source: CIA World Fact Book
All values, unless otherwise stated, are in US dollars.
Economy of Turkey
Economic history of Turkey
Money
  • Turkish lira
  • Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey
  • 2018–2021 currency and debt crisis
Stock exchange
  • Istanbul Stock Exchange
  • Companies listed on ISE
Major projects
Related topics
  • Energy in Turkey
  • Geography of Turkey
  • Science and technology in Turkey
  • Telecommunications in Turkey
  • Tourism in Turkey
  • Transport in Turkey
 Turkey portal
After becoming one of the early members of the Council of Europe in 1950, Turkey became an associate member of the EEC in 1963, joined the EU Customs Union in 1995 and started full membership negotiations with the European Union in 2005.[35][36]

Turkey's nominal GDP peaked at $957.5 billion in 2013,[46][47] ranking 16th in the world in that year,[47] while its nominal GDP per capita peaked at $12,489 in 2013,[46][47] ranking 64th.[47] The GDP (PPP) per capita peaked at $38,759 in 2022, ranking 46th.[6] The declining value of the Turkish lira, especially during the 2018–2022 Turkish currency and debt crisis, had a significant impact on the recent decrease in the country's USD-based nominal GDP figures.[46] High inflation continues to be a problem in the early 2020s.[48] According to the IMF's estimates, published in the IMF WEO Database of October 2022, Turkey is forecasted to have the world's 20th-largest nominal GDP[6] and 11th-largest GDP by PPP[6] by the end of 2022.[6]

Over the past 20 years, there have been major developments in the financial and social aspects of Turkey's economy, such as increases in employment and average income since 2000.[45] Turkey has recently slowed down in its economic progress, due to considerable changes in external and internal factors, as well as a reduction in the government's economic reforms.[45] Environmentalists have argued that the economy is excessively dependent on the construction and contracting sector.[49] President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan's unorthodox monetary policy increased inflation and devalued the currency in recent years.[50]

Turkey inflation rate (Year over Year)
USD / Turkish Lira exchange rate

According to Eurostat data, Turkish GDP per capita adjusted by purchasing power standards stood at 64% of the EU average in 2018.[51] Turkey's labour force participation rate of 61.5% is by far the lowest of the OECD states which have a median rate of 78%.[52] 2017 was the second consecutive year that saw more than 5.000 high net-worth individuals (HNWIs, defined as holding net assets of at least $1 million) leaving Turkey, reasons given as government crackdown on the media deterring investment, and loss of currency value against the U.S. dollar.[53]

A longstanding characteristic of the Turkish economy is a low savings rate.[54] Since under the government of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, Turkey has been running huge and growing current account deficits, reaching $7.1 billion by January 2018, while the rolling 12-month deficit rose to $51.6 billion,[55] one of the largest current account deficits in the world.[54] The economy has relied on capital inflows to fund private-sector excess, with Turkey's banks and big firms borrowing heavily, often in foreign currency.[54] Under these conditions, Turkey must find about $200 billion a year to fund its wide current account deficit and maturing debt, always at risk of inflows drying up, having gross foreign currency reserves of just $85 billion.[56]

Turkey has been meeting the "60% Maastricht criteria" of the EU for government debt stock since 2004. Similarly, from 2002 to 2011, the budget deficit decreased from more than 10% to less than 3%, which is one of the EU's Maastricht criteria for the budget balance.[57] In January 2010, International credit rating agency Moody's Investors Service upgraded Turkey's rating one notch.[58][59] In 2012, credit ratings agency Fitch upgraded Turkey's credit rating to investment grade after an 18-year gap,[60] followed by a ratings upgrade by credit ratings agency Moody's Investors Service in May 2013, as the service lifted Turkey's government bond ratings to the lowest investment grade, Moody's first investment-grade rating for Turkey in two decades and the service stated in its official statement that the nation's "recent and expected future improvements in key economic and public finance metrics" was the basis for the ratings boost.[61][62] In March 2018, Moody's downgraded Turkey's sovereign debt into junk status, warning of an erosion of checks and balances under Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.[63] In May 2018, credit ratings agency Standard & Poor's cut Turkey's debt rating further into junk territory, citing widening concern about the outlook for inflation amid a sell-off in the Turkish lira currency.[64]

Share prices in Turkey nearly doubled over the course of 2009.[65] On 10 May 2017, the Borsa Istanbul (BIST-100 Index), the benchmark index of Turkey's stock market, set a new record high at 95,735 points.[66] As of 5 January 2018, the Index reached 116,638 points.[67] However, in the course of the 2018 Turkish currency and debt crisis,[68][69] the index dipped back below 100.000 in May.[70] In early June, the BIST-100 Index dropped to the lowest level in dollar terms since the global financial crisis in 2008.[71]

In 2017, the OECD expected Turkey to be one of the fastest growing economies among OECD members during 2015–2025, with an annual average growth rate of 4.9%.[72] In May 2018, Moody's Investors Service lowered its estimate for growth of the Turkish economy in 2018 from 4% to 2.5% & in 2019 from 3.5% to 2%.[73]

According to a 2013 Financial Times Special Report on Turkey, Turkish business executives and government officials believed the quickest route to achieving export growth lies outside of traditional western markets.[74] While the European Union used to account for more than half of all Turkey's exports, by 2013 the figure was heading down toward not much more than a third.[74] However, by 2018 the share of exports going to the EU was back above fifty percent.[75] Turkish companies’ foreign direct investment outflow has increased by 10 times over the past 15 years, according to the 2017 Foreign Investment Index.[76][77][78]

With policies of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan fuelling the construction sector, where many of his business allies are active,[79] Turkey as of May 2018 had around 2 million unsold houses, a backlog worth three times average annual new housing sales.[80] The 2018 Turkish currency and debt crisis ended a period of growth under Erdoğan-led governments since 2003, built largely on a construction boom fueled by easy credit and government spending.[81]

In 2018, Turkey went through a currency and debt crisis, characterised by the Turkish lira (TRY) plunging in value, high inflation, rising borrowing costs, and correspondingly rising loan defaults. The crisis was caused by the Turkish economy's excessive current account deficit and foreign-currency debt, in combination with the ruling Justice and Development Party's (AKP) increasing authoritarianism and President Erdoğan's unorthodox ideas about interest rate policy.[82][56][83]

On 10 August 2018, Turkish currency lira nosedived following Donald Trump’s tweet about doubling tariffs on Turkish steel and aluminum that day.[84] The currency weakened 17% that day and has lost nearly 40% of its value against the dollar till that time. The crash of the lira has sent ripples through global markets, putting more pressure on the euro and increasing investors' risk aversion to emerging-market currencies across the board.[84] On 13 Aug., South Africa's rand slumped nearly 10%, the biggest daily drop since June 2016. Lira crisis spotlighted deeper concerns about the Turkish economy that have long signaled turmoil long ago.[84]

By the end of 2018, Turkey went into recession. The Turkish Statistical Institute claimed that the Turkish economy declined by 2.4% in the last quarter of 2018 as compared to the previous quarter. This followed a 1.6% drop the previous quarter.[85] Lira shrank down to 30% against the US dollar in 2018.[86]

In May 2019, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) released an economic outlook in which it is reported that Turkey's economy will probably see a gradual recovery of growth to around 2.5 percent in 2020.[87]

  • The structure of Turkey's GDP by sectors.[88]
  • GDP per capita (PPP) of Turkey vs other emerging economies. The data is retrieved from World Bank
  • Public debt of the six major European countries between 2002 and 2009 as a percentage of GDP
  • Turkey expected to increase its GDP in long term due to population growth and urbanization.

Data
Turkey is a founding member of the OECD (1961) and G20 (1999)
Change in per capita GDP of Turkey, 1913–2018. Figures are inflation-adjusted to 2011 International dollars

The following table shows the main economic indicators from 1980 to 2021 (with IMF staff estimates in 2022–2027). Inflation below 10% is in green.[89]

Year GDP

(in Bil. US$PPP)

 GDP per capita

(in US$ PPP)

 GDP

(in Bil. US$nominal)

 GDP per capita

(in US$ nominal)

 GDP growth

(real)

 Inflation rate

(in Percent)

 Unemployment

(in Percent)

 Government debt

(in % of GDP)

1980 159.2 3,516.3 96.6 2,133.7 -0.8% 110.6% 7.2% n/a
1981 181.9 3,926.5 97.9 2,113.1 4.4% 36.4% 7.2% n/a
1982 199.7 4,215.0 88.9 1,876.6 3.4% 31.1% 7.6% n/a
1983 217.4 4,486.2 85.0 1,753.3 4.8% 31.3% 7.5% n/a
1984 240.6 4,857.9 82.6 1,668.5 6.8% 48.4% 7.4% n/a
1985 258.8 5,116.5 92.8 1,835.2 4.3% 44.5% 6.9% n/a
1986 282.3 5,471.0 102.3 1,983.1 6.9% 34.6% 7.7% n/a
1987 318.3 6,051.1 118.9 2,260.7 10.0% 38.9% 8.1% n/a
1988 336.5 6,280.3 125.0 2,333.2 2.1% 73.7% 8.7% n/a
1989 350.6 6,427.2 147.7 2,707.9 0.3% 63.3% 8.6% n/a
1990 397.4 7,159.3 207.5 3,738.2 9.3% 60.3% 8.0% n/a
1991 414.7 7,344.8 208.4 3,691.4 0.9% 66.0% 7.7% n/a
1992 449.5 7,831.6 219.2 3,818.8 6.0% 70.1% 7.9% n/a
1993 497.2 8,523.4 248.6 4,261.6 8.0% 66.1% 8.4% n/a
1994 480.1 8,101.2 179.4 3,026.7 -5.5% 104.5% 8.0% n/a
1995 525.4 8,729.4 233.6 3,880.9 7.2% 89.6% 7.1% n/a
1996 572.5 9,368.7 250.5 4,099.2 7.0% 80.2% 6.1% n/a
1997 626.2 10,096.0 261.9 4,221.9 7.5% 85.7% 6.3% n/a
1998 652.8 10,376.8 275.8 4,384.5 3.1% 84.7% 6.4% n/a
1999 640.4 10,035.0 256.6 4,020.3 -3.3% 64.9% 7.2% n/a
2000 700.3 10,819.4 274.3 4,238.0 6.9% 55.0% 6.0% 51.3%
2001 674.9 10,288.1 202.2 3,082.9 -5.8% 54.2% 7.8% 75.5%
2002 729.6 10,988.4 240.2 3,617.2 6.4% 45.1% 9.8% 71.5%
2003 786.9 11,712.5 314.8 4,684.7 5.8% 25.3% 9.9% 65.2%
2004 887.2 13,045.3 409.1 6,015.7 9.8% 8.6% 9.7% 57.2%
2005 997.3 14,483.1 506.2 7,350.9 9.0% 8.2% 9.2% 50.2%
2006 1,099.5 15,768.3 555.1 7,961.1 6.9% 9.6% 8.7% 44.2%
2007 1,186.2 16,804.9 680.5 9,640.6 5.0% 8.8% 8.9% 37.8%
2008 1,218.8 17,042.0 770.8 10,778.1 0.8% 10.4% 9.8% 37.7%
2009 1,167.4 16,089.1 648.8 8,941.4 -4.8% 6.3% 13.0% 43.4%
2010 1,281.0 17,376.4 776.6 10,533.5 8.4% 8.6% 11.0% 39.7%
2011 1,454.1 19,459.8 838.5 11,221.4 11.2% 6.5% 9.0% 36.1%
2012 1,550.7 20,504.4 880.1 11,637.9 4.8% 8.9% 8.3% 32.4%
2013 1,703.7 22,221.4 957.5 12,489.0 8.5% 7.5% 8.9% 31.1%
2014 1,860.5 23,945.5 938.5 12,079.3 4.9% 8.9% 9.9% 28.4%
2015 2,022.9 25,691.1 864.1 10,973.6 6.1% 7.7% 10.3% 27.3%
2016 2,116.2 26,513.6 869.3 10,891.2 3.3% 7.8% 10.9% 27.9%
2017 2,282.3 28,242.5 858.9 10,628.9 7.5% 11.1% 10.9% 27.9%
2018 2,406.5 29,345.6 779.7 9,508.0 3.0% 16.3% 10.9% 30.1%
2019 2,468.7 29,688.0 759.5 9,132.9 0.8% 15.2% 13.7% 32.6%
2020 2,546.9 30,460.5 720.1 8,612.3 1.9% 12.3% 13.1% 39.7%
2021 2,953.9 34,883.5 817.5 9,654.1 11.4% 19.6% 12.0% 41.8%
2022 3,321.0 38,759.4 853.5 9,961.1 5.0% 73.1% 10.8% 37.5%
2023 3,543.5 40,882.7 941.6 10,863.0 3.0% 51.2% 10.5% 37.7%
2024 3,726.4 42,515.6 1,037.9 11,841.1 3.0% 24.2% 10.5% 39.6%
2025 3,907.7 44,101.6 1,134.0 12,798.0 3.0% 17.2% 10.5% 42.2%
2026 4,102.7 45,818.0 1,239.1 13,837.7 3.0% 15.4% 10.5% 44.6%
2027 4,308.5 47,628.4 1,354.3 14,971.4 3.0% 15.0% 10.5% 45.3%

Main economic sectors

Agricultural sector
The Atatürk Dam is the largest of the 22 dams in the Southeastern Anatolia Project. The program includes 22 dams, 19 hydraulic power plants, and the irrigation of 1.82 million hectares of land. The total cost of the project is estimated at $32 billion.
These paragraphs are an excerpt from Agriculture in Turkey.[edit]

Agriculture in Turkey is an important part of the economy, and is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.

Half of the land is agricultural,[90] employing 18% of the workforce, and providing 10% of exports, and 7% of GDP in 2020.[91] There are half a million[92][93] farmers. Turkey is a major producer of wheat, sugar beets, milk, poultry, cotton, tomatoes, and other fruits and vegetables.[90]

As of 2021, Turkey is the world's largest producer of hazelnuts and apricots.[90] In 2021, Turkey received 65 percent of all imported wheat from Russia and more than 13 percent from Ukraine.[94]

Since the 1980s, agriculture's share in the total economy has reduced. Turkish agriculture emits greenhouse gases. According to the World Bank the sector should adapt more to climate change in Turkey and make technical improvements.[92]

The total cost of the project is estimated at $32 billion.[95] 14% of food was lost during agricultural processing in 2016, and 23% was trashed by consumers before eating and 5% as leftovers.[96]

The livestock industry, compared to the initial years of the Republic, showed little improvement in productivity, and the later years of the decade saw stagnation. However, livestock products, including meat, milk, wool, and eggs, contributed to more than 1⁄3 of the value of agricultural output.[97] Almost all the seeds used in Turkey are produced domestically.[98]

Turkey is the EU's fourth largest non-EU vegetable supplier and the seventh largest fruit supplier. The European Commission had already started the formal process for extending the Customs Union Agreement to agricultural products,[99][100] before European Union–Turkey relations deteriorated and efforts to extend and modernize the Customs Union Agreement came to a halt in 2018.[101][102][103]

Avocado cultivation in Turkey has shown significant improvement in recent years.[104] In addition, banana cultivation in the Mediterranean region of Turkey has an important potential.[105]

Consumer electronics and home appliances
Turkish brands like Beko and Vestel are among the largest producers of consumer electronics and home appliances in Europe.

Turkey's Vestel is the largest TV producer in Europe, accounting for a quarter of all TV sets manufactured and sold on the continent in 2006.[106] By January 2005, Vestel and its rival Turkish electronics and white goods brand Beko accounted for more than half of all TV sets manufactured in Europe.[107] Another Turkish electronics brand, Profilo Telra, was Europe's third-largest TV producer in 2005.[108] EU market share of Turkish companies in consumer electronics has increased significantly following the Customs Union agreement signed between the EU and Turkey: in color TVs from 5% in 1995 to more than 50% in 2005, in digital devices from 3% to 15%, and in white goods from 3% to 18%.

Textiles and clothing

Turkish companies made clothing exports worth $13.98 billion in 2006; more than $10.67 billion of which (76.33%) were exported to EU member states.[109]

Vakko, Beymen, Yargıcı, Mavi Jeans, Ipekyol, Les Benjamins, Colin's, Nocturne, LC Waikiki, Derimod, DESA and Koton are some of the biggest fashion brands in Turkey.

Motor vehicles and automotive products
1966 Anadol A1 (left) and 1973 Anadol STC-16 (right) at the Rahmi M. Koç Museum in Istanbul. Devrim (1961) was the first Turkish car, while Togg is a new Turkish automotive company established in 2018 for producing EVs.[110][111]
2022 Togg SUV[112]

The automotive industry in Turkey plays an important role in the manufacturing sector of Turkish economy. In 2015 Turkey produced over 1.3 million motor vehicles, ranking as the 14th largest producer in the world.[113]

The automotive industry is an important part of the economy since the late 1960s. The companies that operate in the sector are mainly located in the Marmara Region. With a cluster of car-makers and parts suppliers, the Turkish automotive sector has become an integral part of the global network of production bases, exporting over $22.94 billion worth of motor vehicles and components in 2008.[114][115]

Turkish automotive companies like TEMSA, Otokar and BMC are among the world's largest van, bus and truck manufacturers.

Global car manufacturers with production plants include Fiat/Tofaş, Oyak-Renault, Hyundai, Toyota, Honda and Ford/Otosan. Turkish automotive companies like TEMSA, Otokar and BMC are among the world's largest van, bus and truck manufacturers. Togg is a new Turkish automotive company established in 2018 for producing EVs.[110][116] Togg's factory in Gemlik, Bursa Province, was inaugurated on October 29, 2022, the 99th anniversary of the Turkish Republic.[112]

Turkey's annual auto exports, including trucks and buses, surpassed 1 million units for the first time in 2016 as foreign automakers' investment in new models and a recovery in its mainstay European market lifted shipments. According to industry group the Automotive Manufacturers Association, or OSD, Turkey exported 1.14 million units in 2016, up 15% from the year before. Auto exports hit a record high for the fourth straight year. Production grew 9% year on year in 2016 to 1.48 million units, setting a new record for the second consecutive year. Nearly 80% of vehicles produced in Turkey were exported.[117]

Multiple unit trains, locomotives and wagons

TÜLOMSAŞ (1894), TÜVASAŞ (1951) and EUROTEM (2006) are among the major producers of multiple unit trains, locomotives and wagons in Turkey, including high-speed EMU and DMU models.

Bozankaya is a Turkish manufacturer of rolling stock including metro, tram and trolleybus vehicles in Ankara.

Defense industry
SOM-J cruise missile developed by TÜBİTAK SAGE and ROKETSAN is designed to fit the internal weapons bay of the F-35 and TAI TF-X.
TAI Anka is a family of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) developed by Turkish Aerospace Industries

Turkey has many modern armament manufacturers. Annual exports reached $1.6 billion in 2014.[118] MKEK, TAI, ASELSAN, ROKETSAN, FNSS, Nurol Makina, Otokar, and HAVELSAN are major manufacturers. On 11 July 2002, Turkey became a Level 3 partner of the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) development program. TAI builds various aircraft types and models, such as the F-16 Fighting Falcon for the Turkish Air Force.[119][120] Turkey has recently launched domestically built new military/intelligence satellites including a 0.8m resolution reconnaissance satellite (Project Göktürk-1) for use by the Turkish Armed Forces and a 2m resolution reconnaissance satellite (Project Göktürk-2) for use by the Turkish National Intelligence Organization. Other important products include the Altay main battle tank, A400M, TAI TFX, TF-2000 class AAW frigate, Milgem class corvette, TAI Anka UAV, Aselsan İzci UGV, T-155 Fırtına self-propelled howitzer, J-600T missile, T-129 attack helicopter, Roketsan UMTAS anti-tank missile, Roketsan Cirit laser-guided rocket, Panter howitzer, ACV-300, Otokar Cobra and Akrep, BMC Kirpi, FNSS Pars 6x6 and 8x8 APC, Nurol Ejder 6x6 APC, TOROS artillery rocket system, Bayraktar Mini UAV, ASELPOD, and SOM cruise missile.

Steel-Iron industry

Turkey ranks 8th in the list of countries by steel production. In 2013, total steel production was 29 million tonnes.[121] Turkey's crude steel production reached a record high of 34.1 million tons in 2011.[122] Notable producers (above 2 million tonnes) and their ranks among top steel producing companies.[123]

  • Erdemir (7.1 million tonnes) (47th) (Only Erdemir-Turkey; Erdemir-Romania is not included)
  • Habaş (4.4 million tonnes) (72nd)
  • İçdaş (3.6 million tonnes) (76th)
  • Diler (2.3 million tonnes) (108th)
  • Çolakoğlu (2.1 million tonnes) (110th)

Science and technology

TÜBİTAK is the leading agency for developing science, technology and innovation policies in Turkey.[124] TÜBA is an autonomous scholarly society acting to promote scientific activities in Turkey.[125] TAEK is the official nuclear energy institution of Turkey. Its objectives include academic research in nuclear energy, and the development and implementation of peaceful nuclear tools.[126]

Turkish government companies for research and development in military technologies include Turkish Aerospace Industries, ASELSAN, HAVELSAN, ROKETSAN, MKE, among others. Turkish Satellite Assembly, Integration and Test Center is a spacecraft production and testing facility owned by the Ministry of National Defence and operated by the Turkish Aerospace Industries. The Turkish Space Launch System is a project to develop the satellite launch capability of Turkey. It consists of the construction of a spaceport, the development of satellite launch vehicles as well as the establishment of remote earth stations.[127][128][129]

Construction and contracting sector

The Turkish construction and contracting industry is made up of a large number of businesses, the largest of which was ranked 40th in the world by size. In 2016 a total of 39 Turkish construction and contracting companies were listed in the Top 250 International Contractors List prepared by the Engineering News-Record.[130][131]

Over half of Turkey's building stock contravenes housing regulations. An amnesty program to register illegal constructed buildings brought in $3.1 billion, but the safety issues largely remain. In mid-February 2019, an eight-story building that was registered in the amnesty collapsed killing 21 people. As Turkey is prone to strong earthquakes, poor building quality is even more concerning.[132]

Highrises in the skyline of Istanbul, the most populated city in Turkey and Europe

Transport
Istanbul Airport is the main international airport serving Istanbul, Turkey. It is a major hub in the world.
A TCDD HT80000 high-speed train of the Turkish State Railways at the ATG terminal in Ankara

In 2013 there were ninety-eight airports in Turkey,[133] including 22 international airports.[134] As of 2015, Istanbul Atatürk Airport is the 11th busiest airport in the world, serving 31,833,324 passengers between January and July 2014, according to Airports Council International.[135] The new (third) international airport of Istanbul is planned to be the largest airport in the world, with a capacity to serve 150 million passengers per annum.[136][137][138]

Turkish Airlines, flag carrier of Turkey, has been selected by Skytrax as Europe's best airline for five years in a row (2011–2015).[139][140] With destinations in 126 countries worldwide, Turkish Airlines is the largest carrier in the world by number of countries served as of 2016.[141]

The state-owned utility Turkish State Railways operates the 12,740–km railway network, 23rd longest in the world. Since 2003, Turkish State Railways has also been investing in high-speed rail lines, which at 2,175 km (1,353 mi) ranked ninth longest in the world.[142]

As of 2010, the country had a roadway network of 426,951 km, including 2,080 km of expressways and 16,784 km of divided highways.[143]

As of 2010, the Turkish merchant marine included 1,199 ships (604 registered at home), ranking 7th in the world.[144] Turkey's coastline has 1,200 km of navigable waterways.[144]

In 2008, 7,555 kilometres (4,694 mi) of natural gas pipelines and 3,636 kilometres (2,259 mi) of petroleum pipelines spanned the country's territory.[144]

The 1915 Çanakkale Bridge on the Dardanelles strait, connecting Europe and Asia, is the longest suspension bridge in the world.[145][146]

Communications
Türksat operates the Türksat series of communications satellites. Göktürk-1, Göktürk-2 and Göktürk-3 are Turkey's earth observation satellites for reconnaissance, operated by the Turkish Ministry of National Defense. BILSAT-1 and RASAT are the scientific observation satellites operated by the TÜBİTAK Space Technologies Research Institute.

As of 2008, there were 17,502,000 operational landline telephones in Turkey, which ranked 18th in the world;[144] while there were 65,824,000 registered mobile phones in the country, which ranked 15th in the world during the same year.[144] The largest landline telephone operator is Türk Telekom, which also owns TTNET, the largest internet service provider in Turkey. The largest mobile phone operators in the country are Turkcell, Vodafone Turkey, Avea and TTNET Mobil.

The telecommunications liberalisation process started in 2004 after the creation of the Telecommunication Authority, and is still ongoing. Private sector companies operate in mobile telephony, long-distance telephony and Internet access. Additional digital exchanges are permitting a rapid increase in subscribers; the construction of a network of technologically advanced intercity trunk lines, using both fiber-optic cable and digital microwave radio relay, is facilitating communication between urban centers.[144]

Küçük Çamlıca TV Radio Tower in Istanbul

The remote areas of the country are reached by a domestic satellite system, while the number of subscribers to mobile-cellular telephone service is growing rapidly.[144]

The main line international telephone service is provided by the SEA-ME-WE 3 submarine communications cable and by submarine fiber-optic cables in the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea that link Turkey with Italy, Greece, Israel, Bulgaria, Romania, and Russia.[144] In 2002, there were 12 Intelsat satellite earth stations; and 328 mobile satellite terminals in the Inmarsat and Eutelsat systems.[144]

Türksat A.Ş. is the primary communications satellite operator of Turkey, controlling the Turksat series of satellites. Göktürk-1, Göktürk-2 and Göktürk-3 are Turkey's earth observation satellites for reconnaissance, operated by the Turkish Ministry of National Defense. BILSAT-1 and RASAT are the scientific observation satellites operated by the TÜBİTAK Space Technologies Research Institute, which (together with Turkish Aerospace Industries and Aselsan) also takes part in the production of Turkey's satellites.

As of 2001, there were 16 AM, 107 FM, and 6 shortwave radio stations in the country.[144]

As of 2015, there were 42,275,017 internet users in Turkey, which ranked 15th in the world;[144] while as of 2012, there were 7,093,000 internet hosts in the country, which ranked 16th in the world.[144]

Tourism
Ölüdeniz on the Turkish Riviera (Turquoise Coast), which is famous for its shades of turquoise and aquamarine, while its beach is an official Blue Flag beach, frequently rated among the top 5 beaches in the world by travel and tourism journals.

In 2019, Turkey ranked sixth in the world in terms of the number of international tourist arrivals, with 51.2 million foreign tourists visiting the country.[147] Over the years, Turkey has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans, competing with Greece, Italy and Spain. Resorts in provinces such as Antalya and Muğla (which are located on the Turkish Riviera) have become very popular among tourists.

Banking and finance

The Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey (Türkiye Cumhuriyet Merkez Bankası) was founded in 1930, as a privileged joint-stock company. It possesses the sole right to issue notes. It also has the obligation to provide for the monetary requirements of the state agricultural and commercial enterprises. All foreign exchange transfers are exclusively handled by the central bank.

Bankalar Caddesi (Banks Street) was Istanbul's financial centre during the Ottoman period. Completed in 1892, the Ottoman Central Bank building is seen at left.

Originally established as the Ottoman Stock Exchange (Dersaadet Tahvilat Borsası) in 1866, and reorganized to its current structure at the beginning of 1986, the Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE) is the sole securities market of Turkey.[148] During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Bankalar Caddesi (Banks Street) in Istanbul was the financial center of the Ottoman Empire, where the headquarters of the Ottoman Central Bank (established as the Bank-ı Osmanî in 1856, and later reorganized as the Bank-ı Osmanî-i Şahane in 1863)[149] and the Ottoman Stock Exchange (1866) were located.[150] Bankalar Caddesi continued to be Istanbul's main financial district until the 1990s, when most Turkish banks began moving their headquarters to the modern central business districts of Levent and Maslak.[150] In 1995, the Istanbul Stock Exchange moved to its current building in the Istinye quarter.[151] The Istanbul Gold Exchange was also established in 1995. The stock market capitalisation of listed companies in Turkey was valued at $161,537,000,000 in 2005 by the World Bank.[152]

Akbank, Türkiye İş Bankası, Yapı Kredi, QNB Finansbank and Garanti BBVA are among the Turkish banks headquartered in Levent, Istanbul, Turkey's largest city.

Until 1991, establishing a private sector bank in Turkey was subject to strict government controls and regulations. On 10 October 1991 (ten days before the general elections of 20 October 1991) the ANAP government of Prime Minister Mesut Yılmaz gave special permissions to five prominent businessmen (who had close links to the government) to establish their own small-scale private banks. These were Kentbank (owned by the Süzer Group); Park Yatırım Bankası (owned by Karamehmet); Toprakbank (owned by Toprak); Bank Ekspres (owned by Betil); and Alternatif Bank (owned by Doğan.) They were followed by other small-scale private banks established between 1994 and 1995, during the DYP government of Prime Minister Tansu Çiller, who introduced drastic changes to the banking laws and regulations; which made it very easy to establish a bank in Turkey, but also opened many loopholes in the system. In 1998, there were 72 banks in Turkey; most of which were owned by construction companies that used them as financial assets for siphoning money into their other operations.

Söğütözü business district in Ankara, Turkey's capital and second largest city.

As a result, in 1999 and 2001, the DSP government of Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit had to face two major economic crises that were caused mostly by the weak and loosely regulated banking sector; the growing trade deficit; and the devastating İzmit earthquake of 17 August 1999. The Turkish lira, which was pegged to the U.S. dollar prior to the crisis of 2001, had to be floated, and lost an important amount of its value. This financial breakdown reduced the number of banks to 31. Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit had to call the renowned economist Kemal Derviş to tidy up the economy and especially the weak banking system so that a similar economic crisis would not happen again.

The Mistral Towers,[153] Folkart Towers[154] and Ege Perla Towers[155] in Bayraklı, İzmir, Turkey's third largest city.

At present, the Turkish banking sector is among the strongest and most expansive in East Europe, the Middle East and Central Asia. During the past decade since 2001, the Turkish lira has also gained a considerable amount of value and maintained its stability, becoming an internationally exchangeable currency once again (in line with the inflation that dropped to single-digit figures since 2003.) The economy grew at an average rate of 7.8% between 2002 and 2005. Fiscal deficit is benefiting (though in a small amount) from large industrial privatizations. Banking came under stress beginning in October 2008 as Turkish banking authorities warned state-run banks against the pullback of loans from the larger financial sectors.[156] More than 34% of the assets in the Turkish banking sector are concentrated in the Agricultural Bank (Ziraat Bankası), Housing Bank (Yapı Kredi Bankası), Isbank (Türkiye İş Bankası) and Akbank. The five big state-owned banks were restructured in 2001. Political involvement was minimized and loaning policies were changed. There are also numerous international banks, which have branches in Turkey. A number of Arabian trading banks, which practice an Islamic banking, are also present in the country.

Government regulations passed in 1929 required all insurance companies to reinsure 30% of each policy with the Millî Reasürans T.A.Ş. (National Reinsurance Corporation) which was founded on 26 February 1929.[157] In 1954, life insurance was exempted from this requirement. The insurance market is officially regulated through the Ministry of Commerce.

After years of low levels of foreign direct investment (FDI), in 2007 Turkey succeeded in attracting $21.9 billion in FDI and is expected to attract a higher figure in following years.[158] A series of large privatizations, the stability fostered by the start of Turkey's EU accession negotiations, strong and stable growth, and structural changes in the banking, retail, and telecommunications sectors have all contributed to the rise in foreign investment.

In recent years, the chronically high inflation has been brought under control and this has led to the launch of a new currency, the "New Turkish lira", on 1 January 2005, to cement the acquisition of the economic reforms and erase the vestiges of an unstable economy.[159] On 1 January 2009, the New Turkish lira was renamed once again as the "Turkish lira", with the introduction of new banknotes and coins.

Medical Tourism
Acıbadem Hospital in Altunizade neighborhood of Üsküdar, Istanbul
Renewable energy reduces health costs in Turkey

There are numerous private hospitals in Turkey, which has benefited from medical tourism in recent years. Health tourism generated revenues worth $1 billion in 2019 for Turkey's economy.[160] A total of 662,087 patients were treated at Turkish hospitals in 2019 within the scope of health tourism, with around 60% of the income being obtained from plastic surgeries.[160]

Largest companies

Koç Holding, Sabancı Holding, Anadolu Group, Eczacıbaşı Holding and Zorlu Holding are among the country's largest industrial conglomerates, with business operations in a multitude of different sectors.

In 2014, 12 Turkish companies were listed in the Forbes Global 2000 list - an annual ranking of the top 2000 public companies in the world by Forbes magazine.[161] Banking industry leads with 5 companies in the list followed by telecommunication industry which has 2 companies in the list. There are also 2 conglomerates followed by transportation and beverages industries with 1 companies each. As of 2014, listed companies were:

World RankCompanyIndustryRevenue
(billion $)		Profits
(billion $)		Assets
(billion $)		Market Value
(billion $)
274Türkiye İş BankasıBanking14.582.32114.279.92
288Garanti BankasıBanking9.531.87101.3414.93
321Koç HoldingConglomerate34.721.4127.3610.65
343AkbankBanking7.931.6990.3813.24
414Sabancı HoldingConglomerate12.960.9196.158.1
534Halk BankasıBanking6.421.5761.17.94
609VakıfbankBanking6.270.8862.944.85
666TurkcellTelecommunication5.961.239.9712.48
683Türk TelekomTelecommunication6.920.688.499.91
934Enka ConstructionConstruction6.540.658.479.65
1507Efes İçecek GrubuBeverages4.831.3710.416.75
1872Türk Hava YollarıTransportation9.870.3611.824.29

Long term GDP forecasts

The following table is an OECD Long Term Projections made in February 2022 for largest 16 economies by GDP using PPP exchange rates from 2030 to 2060. [162]

The top 16 largest economies in the world (GDP at 2010 constant PPP in billions USD)
2021 Country 2030 Country 2040 Country 2050 Country 2060
 China 26,656  China 36,977  China 47,306  China 54,765  China 62,140
 United States 22,675  United States 24,302  United States 28,063  India 33,363  India 42,204
 India 10,181  India 16,603  India 25,083  United States 32,119  United States 36,527
 Japan 5,585  Japan 5,632  Indonesia 7,507  Indonesia 9,846  Indonesia 12,320
 Germany 4,743  Indonesia 5,309  Japan 5,908  Japan 6,060  Turkey 7,068
 Russia 4,328  Germany 4,566  Germany 4,914  Turkey 5,934  Japan 6,333
 Indonesia 3,507  Russia 4,233  Turkey 4,776  Germany 5,362  Germany 5,891
 Brazil 3,328  Brazil 3,759  Russia 4,624  Brazil 5,168  Brazil 5,746
 France 3,231  Turkey 3,653  Brazil 4,492  Russia 4,882  Mexico 5,407
 United Kingdom 3,174  United Kingdom 3,375  Mexico 3,832  Mexico 4,620  Russia 5,340
 Turkey 2,749  France 3,267  United Kingdom 3,800  United Kingdom 4,249  United Kingdom 4,768
 Mexico 2,613  Mexico 3,073  France 3,679  France 4,148  France 4,736
 Italy 2,610  South Korea 2,675  South Korea 2,866  Italy 2,959  Italy 3,366
 South Korea 2,436  Italy 2,499  Italy 2,692  South Korea 2,880  Australia 3,104
 Canada 2,027  Spain 2,094  Canada 2,370  Saudi Arabia 2,698  Saudi Arabia 3,066
 Spain 1,959  Canada 2,062  Saudi Arabia 2,362  Canada 2,694  Canada 3,046

External trade and investment
Turkey joined the European Union Customs Union (EUCU) in 1995.

As of 2016, the main trading partners of Turkey are Germany, Russia and the United Kingdom, UAE, Iraq, Italy and China, many being top in both export as well as import.[163] Turkey has taken advantage of a customs union with the European Union, signed in 1995, to increase industrial production for exports, while benefiting from EU-origin foreign investment into the country.[164] In addition to Customs Union, Turkey has free-trade agreements with 22 countries.[165]

A very large aspect of Turkey trade revolves around the automotive industry, where its top exports are cars, accounting for $13.2 billion. Other top exports from the country are gold, delivery trucks, vehicle parts and jewelry, which are respectively, $6.96 billion, $5.04 billion, $4.64 billion, and $3.39 billion. These values are calculated using the 1992 revision of the Harmonized System classification. Comparatively, it imports many of the same industries, such as, gold valued at $17.1 billion, refined petroleum at $9.8 billion, cars at $8.78 billion, vehicle parts at $6.34 billion and scrap iron at $5.84 billion.[166]

Turkey is also a source of foreign direct investment in central and eastern Europe and the CIS, with more than $1.5 billion invested. 32% has been invested in Russia, primarily in the natural resources and construction sector, and 46% in Turkey's Black Sea neighbours, Bulgaria and Romania. Turkish companies also have sizable FDI stocks in Poland, at about $100 million.

The construction and contracting companies, such as Enka, Rönesans Holding and Tekfen, have been significant players in the country's economy.

Without a carbon price exporters to the EU will have to pay the CBAM from 2026.[167]

Turkey had many improvements in Ease of doing business index. It's rank increased from 68th in 2017 and 33th in 2020. Currently, It is performing better than countries like Netharland and Belgium.[168][169][170]

Natural resources

Energy
Renewable energy increases industrial production in Turkey
Wind turbines in Gökçeada Island, Çanakkale Province
Karabük Solar Energy Farm

The energy sector is the main source of greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey and contributes to climate change in Turkey, which is in turn affecting the economy by increasing droughts, which reduce agriculture and hydropower in Turkey.[171] By 2020, according to Carbon Tracker, both new wind and solar power were cheaper than building new coal power plants; and they forecast that wind would become cheaper than existing coal plants in 2027, and solar in 2023: so they say that constructing Afşin-Elbistan C power station would be a waste of money (estimated 17 billion lira).[172]

Renewable energy reduces fossil fuel imports to Turkey

By the end of the 2010s Turkey had achieved energy security - in part by increasing regasification capacity and gas storage capacity.[173] Coal power subsidies have been described as economically irrational,[174] for increasing air pollution.[175]

Renewable energy
These paragraphs are an excerpt from Renewable energy in Turkey.[edit]

Renewable energy in Turkey is mostly hydroelectricity, geothermal energy and solar energy. Although sun and wind could supply plenty of energy in Turkey,[176] hydropower is the only renewable energy which is fully exploited, averaging about a fifth of national electricity supply.[177] However in drought years much less electricity is generated by hydro.[178] Over half of capacity is renewables, and it is estimated that over half of generation could be from renewables by 2026,[179] but Turkey has invested less in solar and wind power than similar Mediterranean countries.[178] Turkey lacks a renewable energy plan beyond 2023 which includes transport, industry, heating and cooling as well as electricity generation.[177] More renewable energy could be used to reduce the nation's greenhouse gas emissions,[180] and thus avoid paying other countries' carbon tariffs.[181] Turkey is a net exporter of wind power equipment, but a net importer of solar power equipment.[182] Total non-hydro renewables overtook hydro in 2021.[183] Solar is expected to overtake wind before 2030.[184]

According to one study, by massively increasing solar power in the south and wind power in the west the country's entire energy demand could be met from renewable sources.[185] Others say that nuclear power will keep the grid stable from fluctuations in variable renewable energy.[186] And others that more geothermal baseload capacity should be added.[187] Geothermal power in Turkey is used mainly for heating, and solar water heating is also widespread. A green tariff has been offered since 2021.[188] According to a 2022 report from thinktank Ember, Turkey needs to expand renewables at least twice as fast, to decarbonize the electricity sector and lower import bills.[189] A 2022 study by Shura says that renewables could generate 70% of electricity by 2030, with coal reduced to 5%.[190]: 13  Shura simultation of typical spring 2030 generation shows that wind and nuclear could provide baseload, and solar much of daytime demand, reserving dammed hydro for evening flexibility.[190]: 17  Many new 400kV transmission lines are planned to be built by 2030.[190]: 15 

Some academics say that governments have not allowed civil society enough say on energy policy, leading to protests against building hydropower plants, geothermal power, and at least one wind farm.[191] Large companies include the state electricity generation company(mainly hydro),[192] Aydem,[193] and Kalyon.[194]
Gas
This section is an excerpt from Oil and gas in Turkey.[edit]
Oil and gas are large sources of primary energy in Turkey

Oil and gas each supply over a quarter of Turkey's primary energy.[195][196] The country consumes 50 to 60 billion cubic metres of natural gas each year.[197][198] Almost all oil and gas is imported and is a big part of the current account deficit of the economy,[199] but a large gas field in the Black Sea is expected to start production in 2023.[200]

Almost half of the country's gas is imported from Russia.[198] Gas storage capacity is being increased.[201] Over 80% of the population, and all provinces in Turkey, have access to natural gas.[202] Gas supplies half of the country's heating requirements.[197] Households buy the most gas, followed by industry and power stations.[203] All industrial and commercial customers, and household using a lot of gas, can switch suppliers.[195] As the state owned oil and gas wholesaler BOTAŞ has 80% of the gas market,[195]: 16  the government can and does subsidize residential and industrial gas customers.[204]
Russian (red) and non Russian (yellow) gas flows in Turkey
Over half of the imported oil and oil products are used for road transport.[205] Turkey is the world's largest user of liquefied petroleum gas for road transport.[206] Turkey is almost completely dependent on imports of oil,[207] as only 7% of oil is produced locally.[208]

Unlike several European countries, which stopped buying or were cut off from Russian oil or gas, after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, relations with Russia are such that Turkey continues to buy both.[209][210] Some analysts say that Turkey does not have enough gas storage or alternative supplies to resist pressure.[211] In 2022 a gas shutoff by Iran caused problems for industry.[212]

It is said to sometimes be difficult for media in Turkey to report fully on energy geopolitics.[211]
Oil

Turkey is an oil producer, but the level of production by the state-owned TPAO is not nearly enough to make the country self-sufficient, which makes Turkey a net importer of oil.[213] The Energy Market Regulatory Authority sets a ceiling on gasoline and diesel prices.[214]

The pipeline network in Turkey included 1,738 kilometres (1,080 mi) for crude oil and 2,321 kilometres (1,442 mi) for petroleum products in 1999. The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline, the second-longest oil pipeline in the world, was inaugurated on 10 May 2005. The pipeline delivers crude oil from the Caspian Sea basin to the port of Ceyhan on Turkey's Mediterranean coast, from where it is distributed with oil tankers to the world's markets.

Coal
This section is an excerpt from Coal in Turkey.[edit]
Government-owned Turkish Coal Operations Authority mine in Yeniköy, Milas

Coal supplies over a quarter of Turkey's primary energy.[215] The heavily subsidised coal industry generates over a third of the country's electricity[216] and emits a third of Turkey's greenhouse gases.

Most coal mined in Turkey is lignite (brown coal), which is more polluting than other types of coal.[217] Turkey's energy policy encourages mining lignite for coal-fired power stations in order to reduce gas imports;[216] and coal supplies over 40% of domestic energy production.[218] Mining peaked in 2018, at over 100 million tonnes,[219] and declined considerably in 2019.[220] Most coal is imported,[221][222] as in contrast to local lignite production, Turkey imports almost all of the bituminous coal it uses. Coal consumption also peaked in 2018 (but may peak again).[223] The largest coalfield in Turkey is Elbistan.[224]

Coal-fired power stations are a major contributor to air pollution, and cause severe, widespread impacts on public health across the nation and region. It is estimated that in 2019, air pollution from coal-fired power stations in Turkey caused almost 5,000 premature deaths and over 1.4 million work-days lost to illness. Flue gas emission limits are in place, but data from mandatory reporting is not made public.

Minerals
Marble queries in Turkey

Turkey is the tenth-ranked producer of minerals in the world in terms of diversity. Around 60 different minerals are currently produced in Turkey. The richest mineral deposits in the country are boron salts, Turkey's reserves amount to 72% of the world's total. According to the CIA World Factbook, other natural resources include coal, iron ore, copper, chromium, uranium, antimony, mercury, gold, silver, barite, borate, celestine (strontium), emery, feldspar, limestone, magnesite, marble, perlite, pumice, pyrites (sulfur) and clay.

In 2019, the country was the 2nd largest world producer of chromium;[225] the world's largest producer of boron;[226] 6th largest world producer of antimony;[227] 9th largest world producer of lead;[228] 13th largest world producer of iron ore;[229] 11th largest world producer of molybdenum;[230] 4th largest world producer of gypsum;[231] 15th largest world producer of graphite;[232] in addition to being the 11th largest world producer of salt.[233]

As a gold producer Turkey is currently ranked 22nd globally. Hosting some of the largest gold deposits in the European continent it is currently Europe's largest gold producer, producing 42 Tonnes of gold in 2020.[234] World class deposits include Kisladag Mine 17Moz and Copler 10Moz. The country hosts 18 mid sized deposits from 1-10Moz gold, these include the Kiziltepe Gold Mine, Salinbas, Hod Maden, Ovacik and Efemcukuru.

Environment
Renewable energy increases employment in Turkey

Almost all post-covid stimulus was detrimental to the environment, with Russia being the only worse country.[235] In the 21st century, Turkey's fossil fuel subsidies are around 0.2% of GDP,[236][237] including at least US$14 billion (US$169 per person) between January 2020 and September 2021.[238] Data on finance for fossil fuels by state-owned banks and export credit agencies is not public.[239]

Employment

In 2021 trade unions complained that TurkStat data showed unemployment falling whereas that of the government employment agency showed it rising.[240] Environmentalists argue that some actions to improve the environment would also benefit the economy, for example: that investing in wind power in Turkey and solar power in Turkey would create jobs and is competitive with fossil fuels.[241]

Regional disparities
Istanbul has the largest GDP and GDP per capita in Turkey. The city has a finance center currently under construction.

According to Eurostat data, Turkish GDP per capita adjusted by purchasing power standards stood at 64 percent of the EU average in 2018.[51]

The country's wealth is mainly concentrated in the northwest and west, while the east and southeast suffer from poverty, lower economic production and higher levels of unemployment.[242] However, in line with the rapid growth of Turkey's GDP during the first two decades of the 21st century (with brief periods of stagnation and recession), parts of Anatolia began reaching a higher economic standard. These cities are known as the Anatolian Tigers.

See also
  • Economic history of Turkey
  • World Bank
  • OECD
  • National debt of Turkey
  • World Gold Council
  • List of companies of Turkey
  • List of countries by labour force Turkey, 19th
  • List of countries by real GDP growth rate Turkey, 15th
  • List of countries by total wealth Turkey, 28th
  • List of countries by number of millionaires Turkey, 34th
  • List of countries by number of billionaires Turkey, 23rd
  • List of countries with the most skyscrapers Turkey, 14th

References
  1. "General Profile of Labour Force". data.tuik.gov.tr. TURKSTAT. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
  2. "World Economic and Financial Surveys World Economic Outlook Database—WEO Groups and Aggregates Information April 2020". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
  3. N. Gregory Mankiw (2007). Principles of Economics (4th ed.). ISBN 978-0-324-22472-6.
  4. "World Bank Country and Lending Groups". datahelpdesk.worldbank.org. World Bank. Retrieved 29 September 2019.
  5. "Population on 1 January". ec.europa.eu/eurostat. World Bank. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
  6. "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022". Imf. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
  7. Butler, Daren (30 November 2021). "Turkish economy expands 7.3% year-on-year in Q1". aa.com.tr. Reuters. Retrieved 30 November 2021.
  8. "GDP - Composition by Sector". CIA World Factbook. 2016. Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
  9. "Consumer Prices". TCMB. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
  10. "Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of population)". data.worldbank.org. World Bank. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
  11. "People at risk of poverty or social exclusion". ec.europa.eu. Eurostat. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
  12. Bank, World (9 April 2020). "Europe Central Asia Economic Update, Spring 2020 : Fighting COVID-19". openknowledge.worldbank.org. World Bank: 75, 76. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
  13. "Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income - EU-SILC survey". ec.europa.eu. Eurostat. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
  14. "Human Development Index (HDI)". hdr.undp.org. HDRO (Human Development Report Office) United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
  15. Nations, United. "Inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI)". hdr.undp.org. UNDP. Retrieved 22 May 2020.
  16. "Labor force, total - Turkey". data.worldbank.org. World Bank & ILO. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
  17. "İşgücü İstatistikleri, Temmuz 2021". data.tuik.gov.tr (in Turkish). TÜİK. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
  18. "Turkey: Issizlik Orani". TUIK. Retrieved 26 September 2021.
  19. "Erdogan Under Pressure as Covid Leaves Turks Losing Hope of Work". Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg. 27 December 2020. Retrieved 10 December 2020.
  20. "Rankings & Ease of Doing Business Score". World Bank. Retrieved 31 October 2018.
  21. 2 Ekim 2019 (2 October 2019). "İhracat, eylül ayında rekor tazeledi". ParaAnaliz. Archived from the original on 3 October 2019. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
  22. "Turkey (TUR) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners | OEC".
  23. "Export Partners of Turkey". The Observatory of Economic Complexity. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
  24. "World Bank 2019". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 11 March 2019.
  25. "Imports Products of Turkey". CIA World Factbook. Archived from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
  26. "Import Partners of Turkey". The Observatory of Economic Complexity. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
  27. "The World Factbook". CIA.gov. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 14 February 2019.
  28. "European Economy 2017, p 127" (PDF). European Commission. 2017. Retrieved 17 May 2017.
  29. "Detailed summary" (PDF). www.oecd.org. 2016. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
  30. "Turkey ranks second in the world for humanitarian aid, named most generous donor". Daily Sabah. 15 August 2017. Retrieved 21 June 2017.
  31. "S&P, Moody's send Turkey deeper into junk territory". Financial Times. 17 August 2018. Retrieved 19 August 2018.
  32. "Fitch sends Turkey deeper into junk territory". Financial Times. 30 July 2018. Retrieved 19 August 2018.
  33. "Scope downgrades Turkey's long-term foreign-currency ratings to B+, and maintains a Negative Outlook". Scope Ratings. 11 March 2022. Retrieved 12 March 2022.
  34. "Info" (PDF). www.tcmb.gov.tr.
  35. "Chronology of Turkey-EU relations". Turkish Secretariat of European Union Affairs. Archived from the original on 15 May 2007. Retrieved 30 October 2006.
  36. "Interview with European Commission President Jose Manuel Barroso on BBC Sunday AM" (PDF). European Commission. 15 October 2006. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 November 2006. Retrieved 17 December 2006.
  37. "IMF WEO Database of April 2022 - Emerging and Developing - Europe". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 6 May 2022.
  38. Mauro F. Guillén (2003). "Multinationals, Ideology, and Organized Labor". The Limits of Convergence. Princeton University Press. pp. 126 (Table 5.1). ISBN 0-691-11633-4.
  39. David Waugh (2000). "Manufacturing industries (chapter 19), World development (chapter 22)". Geography, An Integrated Approach (3rd ed.). Nelson Thornes Ltd. pp. 563, 576–579, 633, and 640. ISBN 0-17-444706-X.
  40. N. Gregory Mankiw (2007). Principles of Economics (4th ed.). ISBN 978-0-324-22472-6.
  41. "Turkey's economy sees recovery signs as risks remain_English_Xinhua". Xinhua. 28 June 2009. Archived from the original on 29 June 2009. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
  42. "Fund management". The Economist. 16 July 2009.
  43. "Turkey - Country Brief 2010". Worldbank.org.tr. Archived from the original on 28 August 2016. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
  44. Developed Countries Archived 9 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine, World Factbook, CIA.
  45. "Overview". World Bank. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
  46. "IMF World Economic Outlook Database, April 2022: Turkey, data for 2010-2027". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 6 May 2022.
  47. "Turkey GDP - Gross Domestic Product - 2013". countryeconomy.com. Retrieved 6 May 2022.
  48. "Turkey's war with inflation: 'Prices change daily and everyone is scared'". the Guardian. 16 April 2022. Retrieved 17 April 2022.
  49. "There's still time for Turkey to improve its spotty climate record". The National. 8 November 2021. Retrieved 10 November 2021.
  50. "Why Turkey's currency crash does not worry Erdogan". The National. 3 December 2021. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
  51. "GDP per capita in PPS". Eurostat. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
  52. "Employment - Labour force participation rate - OECD Data". theOECD.
  53. "Private wealth in Turkey in decline: Report". Hurriyet Daily News. 27 February 2018.
  54. "How Turkey fell from investment darling to junk-rated emerging market". The Economist. 19 May 2018.
  55. "Turkish current account deficit more than doubles". Ahval. 12 March 2018. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 30 May 2018.
  56. "Inflation rise poses challenge to Erdogan as election looms". Financial Times. 5 June 2018.
  57. "Gross domestic product 2011". Turkish Statistical Institute. 21 December 2012. Retrieved 12 April 2013.
  58. "Moo upgrades government bond rating amidst crisis Archived 2010-01-12 at the Wayback Machine". Today's Zaman. 9 January 2010.
  59. Eric Martin (7 August 2012). "Goldman Sachs's MIST Topping BRICs as Smaller Markets Outperform". Bloomberg.com.
  60. Butler, Daren (5 November 2012). "Turkey Regains Investment-Grade Rating After Long Wait". Reuters. Archived from the original on 1 October 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2017.
  61. Daren Butler (17 May 2013). "UPDATE 1-Turkey hails new investment grading but worries about money flows". Reuters. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 17 May 2013.
  62. Ye Xie; Selcuk Gokoluk (17 May 2013). "Turkey Raised to Investment Grade by Moody's on Debt Cuts". Bloomberg L.P. Bloomberg L.P. Retrieved 18 May 2013.
  63. "Moody's downgrades Turkish debt". Financial Times. 8 March 2018.
  64. "S&P cuts Turkey's rating deeper into 'junk'". Reuters. Reuters. 1 May 2018.
  65. "Stockmarkets". The Economist. 7 January 2010.
  66. "Borsa Istanbul Stock Exchange breaking records". Daily Sabah. 10 May 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
  67. "Borsa Istanbul". BloombergHT. 5 January 2018. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
  68. "Turkey's leader is helping to crash its currency". Washington Post. 16 May 2018.
  69. "Investors lose their appetite for Turkey". Financial Times. 16 May 2018.
  70. "Borsa Istanbul Stock Exchange breaking records". Anadolu. 8 May 2018.
  71. "Turkish stock market hits lowest since 2008 crisis". Ahval. 6 June 2018. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 7 June 2018.
  72. "Economic Outlook". Turkish Statistical Institute. 18 May 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
  73. "Turkish growth forecast almost halved at Moody's". Ahval. 30 May 2018. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 30 May 2018.
  74. Dombey, Daniel (9 May 2013). "Silk roads lead to resurgent power". Financial Times. Retrieved 10 May 2013.
  75. "EU's share in Turkey's exports hit 53 percent in February with sharp annual increase: Association". Hurriyet Daily News. 1 March 2018.
  76. "Turkey Overseas Investment Rises 10 Times in 15 Years". financialtribune. 18 May 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
  77. "Turkey's overseas investments increase tenfold over last 15 years". Daily Sabah. 18 May 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
  78. "Turkish businesses FDI outflow rises 10 times in 15 years: Index". Hürriyet Daily News. 18 May 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
  79. Mark Bentley (19 April 2018). "Turkish real estate ills reflect Erdoğan's snap poll decision". Ahval. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 8 June 2018.
  80. "Turkish property firms to slash prices in one-month drive to revive market". Reuters. 15 May 2018.
  81. Jack Ewing (17 August 2018). "Life in Turkey Now: Tough Talk, but Fears of Drug Shortages". New York Times.
  82. Borzou Daragahi (25 May 2018). "Erdogan Is Failing Economics 101". Foreign Policy.
  83. Matt O'Brien (13 July 2018). "Turkey's economy looks like it's headed for a big crash". Washington Post.
  84. "Turkey's Lessons for Emerging Economies - Caixin Global". www.caixinglobal.com. Retrieved 20 August 2018.
  85. "Turkey's economy slides into recession". BBC News. Retrieved 11 March 2019.
  86. "Turkey's economy slips into recession, according to new figures". Middle East Eye. Retrieved 11 March 2019.
  87. "Turkey's economic rebound will be 'gradual': EBRD". France 24. 8 May 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2019.
  88. "Bluenomics". Archived from the original on 17 November 2014.
  89. "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects".
  90. "Turkey - Country Commercial Guide". International Trade Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce. 7 December 2021.
  91. "World Bank Provides $341 Million Boost to Advance Green and Competitive Growth of Turkey's Agricultural Sector". World Bank. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
  92. "Turkey's farmers battle with soaring costs and mounting debt". Financial Times. 4 May 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
  93. "Number of farmers in Turkey plummets below half a million". Duvar (in Turkish). 21 April 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  94. Gostev, Aleksandr; Liklikadze, Koba (30 April 2022). "Analysis: Erdogan Hoping Russian Invasion Of Ukraine Can Bolster Turkish Regional Power". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.
  95. "Southeastern Anatolia Project: What is G.A.P.?". gap.gov.tr. Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
  96. "One-fourth of wasted food could feed 870M people: expert".
  97. Fisheries and Aquaculture 2005 statistics.
  98. Gazete, Banka (21 November 2021). "Bakan Pakdemirli: 'Ülkemizde kullanılan tohumlukların yüzde 96'sı yurt içinde üretilmektedir'". Gazetebanka.com. p. https://gazetebanka.com/. Retrieved 21 November 2021.
  99. "EU imported 21% more fruit and veg from Turkey". www.freshplaza.com.
  100. "The fruit and vegetable sector in the EU - a statistical overview/ - Statistics Explained". ec.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
  101. "EU Council issues strong message about Turkey's obligations". Cyprus Mail. 26 June 2018.
  102. "EU will Zollunion mit der Türkei nicht ausbauen". Die Zeit (in German). 27 June 2018.
  103. "ENLARGEMENT AND STABILISATION AND ASSOCIATION PROCESS Council conclusions" (PDF). Council of the European Union. 26 June 2018.
  104. Gazete, Banka (15 November 2021). "Korona virüs avokado üretimini arttırdı, üretici talebe yetişemiyor". Gazetebanka Haber. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
  105. Gazete, Banka (15 November 2021). "Muzda 6 çeşit tescillenecek". Gazetebanka. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
  106. Michael Kuser. "The Unknown TV Giant". Businessweek.com.
  107. Boulden, Jim (17 January 2005). "Turkey switches on to TV market". CNN.com. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
  108. "Europe's No. 3 TV Manufacturer, a Private Company: PROFILO-TELRA". Business Wire. BNET. 19 August 2005. Archived from the original on 30 May 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
  109. "The Export Performance of the Turkish Clothing Industry in 2006 Archived 2007-11-28 at the Wayback Machine," ITKIB
  110. Jay Ramey (30 December 2019). "Turkey Bets on EVs with the Pininfarina-Designed TOGG". autoweek.com.
  111. "TOGG Official Website". togg.com.tr. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
  112. "'A game changer': Türkiye inaugurates its first national car plant". TRT World. 30 October 2022.
  113. "2015 Production Statistics". Organisation Internationale des Constructeurs d'Automobiles. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
  114. "Otomotiv İhracatı 2008'de 22 Milyar 944 Milyon Dolara Ulaştı". Haberler. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
  115. 29.08.2011 Pazartesi 15:58. "2008'de otomotiv ihracatı rekor kırdı". bankakredimnet. Archived from the original on 13 March 2017. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
  116. "TOGG Official Website". togg.com.tr. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
  117. "Turkish auto exports hit 1m for first time in 2016". Nikkei Asian Review.
  118. "Savunma Sanayi İhracat Artışı, Türkiye Ortalamasının Dört Katından Fazla Oldu". Milliyet. Retrieved 27 February 2015.
  119. "Turkey signs $1.78 bln deal to buy warplanes". Reuters. 11 May 2007.
  120. "Turkey signs contract to buy 30 F-16 block 50+ jets". F-16.net.
  121. Türkiye Çelik Üreticileri Derneği. "Türkiye Çelik Üreticileri Derneği". dcud.org.tr. Archived from the original on 6 January 2012.
  122. Turkish Steel Producers Association. "Turkish Steel Producers Association". dcud.org.tr. Archived from the original on 9 January 2014.
  123. Gözlem Gazetesi. "Gözlem Gazetesi". gozlemgazetesi.com. Archived from the original on 4 November 2011.
  124. "Who We Are? - THE SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF TURKEY". tubitak.gov.tr.
  125. "Türkiye Bilimler Akademisi". tuba.gov.tr. Archived from the original on 21 February 2014. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
  126. "Turkish Atomic Energy Authority - Mission of TAEK". Archived from the original on 8 June 2014. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
  127. "Space Launch System Project". Undersecretariat for Defence Industries. Archived from the original on 20 December 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2013.
  128. Bekdil, Burak Ege (28 July 2013). "Turkey's Sat-Launcher Plans Raise Concerns". Defense News. Archived from the original on 30 August 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2013.
  129. Bekdil, Burak Ege (12 December 2013). "Turkey Spends Big on Innovation". Defense News. Archived from the original on 20 December 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2013.
  130. "Turkish contractors rank second in world for ninth straight year". Retrieved 19 August 2018.
  131. "The Top 250 International Contractors". Enr.construction.com. 24 August 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2018.
  132. Caglayan, Birsen Altayli (26 February 2019). "Turkish cities could become 'graveyards' with building amnesty,..." Reuters. Retrieved 11 March 2019 – via www.reuters.com.
  133. "CIA World Factbook: Turkey". Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
  134. "Study in Turkey: International Airports in Turkey". Archived from the original on 25 December 2013. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
  135. "Year to date Passenger Traffic". ACI. 25 September 2014. Archived from the original on 13 August 2018. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
  136. "It will be the biggest airport of the world". 24 January 2013. Archived from the original on 29 January 2013. Retrieved 24 January 2013.
  137. "Istanbul's New Erdoğan-Backed Airport to Be Named After... Erdoğan". Newsweek. 14 August 2014.
  138. Gianluca Mezzofiore (14 August 2014). "Erdogan Airport: Istanbul's Super Hub 'to be Named After Turkey's President-Elect'". International Business Times UK.
  139. "Turkish Airlines is named the Best Airline in Europe at the 2012 World Airline Awards held at Farnborough Air Show". Skytrax. 12 July 2012. Archived from the original on 25 April 2013. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
  140. "Turkish Airlines named best airline in Europe for fifth year in a row - BUSINESS".
  141. "Turkish Airlines: International Flight Destinations". Turkish Airlines. Archived from the original on 19 May 2016. Retrieved 22 June 2016.
  142. Heper, Metin (2018). Historical Dictionary of Turkey.
  143. "Karayolları Genel Müdürlüğü". kgm.gov.tr. Archived from the original on 9 November 2016. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
  144. "CIA World Factbook: Turkey". Cia.gov. Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
  145. "Why Turkey Built the World's Longest Suspension Bridge". The B1M. Retrieved 22 May 2022.
  146. "Groundbreaking ceremony for bridge over Dardanelles to take place on March 18". Hürriyet Daily News. 17 March 2017. Retrieved 22 May 2022.
  147. UNWTO Tourism Highlights: 2019 Edition | World Tourism Organization. 2019. doi:10.18111/9789284421152. ISBN 978-92-844-2115-2. S2CID 240665765.
  148. "Istanbul Stock Exchange: History of the Istanbul Stock Exchange". Imkb.gov.tr. Archived from the original on 25 February 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
  149. "Ottoman Bank Museum: History of the Ottoman Bank". Obarsiv.com. Archived from the original on 14 June 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
  150. "Ottoman Bank Museum". Ottoman Bank Museum. Archived from the original on 18 May 2009. Retrieved 18 June 2009.
  151. "Istanbul Stock Exchange: "İMKB'nin Kuruluşundan İtibaren Önemli Gelişmeler" (Timeline of important events since 1985)". Imkb.gov.tr. Archived from the original on 25 February 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
  152. Data - Finance Archived 5 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine, World Development Indicators, World Bank
  153. "Mistral Towers". emporis.com. Archived from the original on 1 May 2019.
  154. "Folkart Towers". emporis.com. Archived from the original on 15 March 2016.
  155. "Ege Perla". emporis.com. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021.
  156. Turkey warns against potential Bank Runs Archived 5 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  157. "Millî Reasürans: Tarihçe". Millire.com. Archived from the original on 9 October 2011. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
  158. "Yabancı sermayede rekor". Anka News Agency (in Turkish). Hürriyet. 21 February 2008. Retrieved 21 February 2008.
  159. "Turkey knocks six zeros off lira". British Broadcasting Corporation. 31 December 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2008.
  160. "Health tourism earns above $1B to Turkey in 2019, under spotlight with COVID-19". Daily Sabah. Daily Sabah. 20 August 2020. Retrieved 8 April 2021.
  161. "2014 Forbes 2000 List: Turkish Companies". The World's Biggest Public Companies. Forbes. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  162. "Economic Outlook No 109 - February 2022 - Long-term baseline projections". Retrieved 11 February 2022.
  163. "Foreign Trade Statistics as of October 2012". Turkish Statistical Institute. 30 November 2006. Archived from the original (Word document) on 21 December 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
  164. Bartolomiej Kaminski (1 May 2006). "Turkey's evolving trade integration into Pan-European markets" (PDF). World Bank. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 June 2007. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
  165. "T.C. Ticaret Bakanlığı". www.ticaret.gov.tr (in Turkish). Retrieved 8 September 2018.
  166. "OEC - Turkey (TUR) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners". oec.world. Retrieved 23 September 2019.
  167. "Turkey balks at coal phaseout amid growing energy woes - Al-Monitor: The Pulse of the Middle East". www.al-monitor.com. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
  168. "World Bank Group to Discontinue Doing Business Report". World Bank. Retrieved 16 September 2021.
  169. Zumbrun, Josh (16 September 2021). "World Bank Cancels Flagship 'Doing Business' Report After Investigation". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 16 September 2021.
  170. Machen, Ronald; Jones, Matthew; Varghese, George; Stark, Emily (15 September 2021). "Investigation of Data Irregularities in Doing Business 2018 and Doing Business 2020" (PDF). World Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 September 2021.
  171. CDP Climate Change and Water Report 2018 Turkey Edition (PDF). CDP Turkey. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 April 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
  172. "WIND VS COAL POWER IN TURKEY/SOLAR PV VS COAL IN TURKEY" (PDF). Carbon Tracker. 2020.
  173. AA, Daily Sabah with (5 July 2019). "Turkey's new LNG storage, regasification unit to dock in İzmir today". Daily Sabah. Retrieved 29 July 2020.
  174. "A country outside of the global climate policy: Turkey". Bianet.
  175. Vardar, Suat; Demirel, Burak; Onay, Turgut T. (22 March 2022). "Impacts of coal-fired power plants for energy generation on environment and future implications of energy policy for Turkey". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 29 (27): 40302–40318. doi:10.1007/s11356-022-19786-8. ISSN 1614-7499. PMC 8940263. PMID 35318602.
  176. Dawood, Kamran (2016). "Hybrid wind-solar reliable solution for Turkey to meet electric demand". Balkan Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering. 4 (2): 62–66. doi:10.17694/bajece.06954.
  177. Lessons from global experiences for accelerating energy transition in Turkey through solar and wind power (PDF) (Report). Shura. 2019. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
  178. Saygılı, Hülya. "Renewable Energy use in Turkey". Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey blog. Retrieved 17 February 2019.
  179. "Legislation to promote use of renewable energy". Hürriyet Daily News. 9 March 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2022.
  180. Sahin, Habip; Esen, Hikmet (1 June 2022). "The usage of renewable energy sources and its effects on GHG emission intensity of electricity generation in Turkey". Renewable Energy. 192: 859–869. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2022.03.141. ISSN 0960-1481. S2CID 247903903.
  181. "Domestic share of wind turbine production in Turkey reaches 72%". Balkan Green Energy News. 20 June 2022. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
  182. Saygin, Deger; Godron, Philipp; Hoffman, Max (10 July 2018). "How Turkey Can Ensure a Successful Energy Transition". Center for American Progress. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
  183. "Non-hydro renewables overtake hydro for first time". Hürriyet Daily News. 22 January 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
  184. {{Cite report|first=Ufuk |last=Alparslan |date=2022-10-04 |title=Türkiye energy independence only comes with clean |url=https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/energy-independence-only-comes-with-clean/ |access-date=2022-10-10 |website=[[Ember (non-profit)|Ember |language=en-US}}
  185. Kilickaplan, Anil; Bogdanov, Dmitrii; Peker, Onur; Caldera, Upeksha; Aghahosseini, Arman; Breyer, Christian (1 December 2017). "An energy transition pathway for Turkey to achieve 100% renewable energy powered electricity, desalination and non-energetic industrial gas demand sectors by 2050". Solar Energy. 158: 218–235. Bibcode:2017SoEn..158..218K. doi:10.1016/j.solener.2017.09.030. ISSN 0038-092X.
  186. Matalucci, Sergio (30 March 2022). "Turkey targets Balkans and EU renewables markets". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
  187. Chandrasekharam, Dornadula; Baba, Alper (7 April 2022). "Carbon dioxide emissions mitigation strategy through enhanced geothermal systems: western Anatolia, Turkey". Environmental Earth Sciences. 81 (8): 235. doi:10.1007/s12665-022-10345-5. ISSN 1866-6299. PMC 8986971. PMID 35411211.
  188. "Elektri̇k Pi̇yasasinda Yeni̇lenebi̇li̇r Enerji̇ Kaynak Garanti̇ Belgesi̇ Yönetmeli̇ği̇" [Renewable Energy Source Guarantee Certificate Regulation in the Electricity Market]. Official Gazette of the Republic of Turkey. 14 November 2020. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
  189. "Turkey Electricity Review 2022". Ember. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  190. Integration of Renewable Energy into the Turkish Electricity System (Report). Shura. 28 April 2022. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
  191. Tezcür, Günes Murat (2022). The Oxford Handbook of Turkish Politics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-006489-1.
  192. "Turkey's hydropower capacity grows despite drought lowering output". Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved 8 July 2022.
  193. Todorović, Igor (20 April 2021). "Five renewable energy firms preparing to enter stock market in Turkey". Balkan Green Energy News. Retrieved 8 July 2022.
  194. Aslanhan, Ugur (18 April 2022). "Europe's biggest solar power plant in Turkiye to meet power needs of 2M". Anadolu Agency. Retrieved 8 July 2022.
  195. IEA (March 2021). Turkey 2021 – Energy Policy Review (Technical report). International Energy Agency. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
  196. "Energy consumption by source, Turkey". Our World in Data. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
  197. "A Cold Winter: Turkey and the Global Natural Gas Shortage". Centre for Economics and Foreign Policy Studies (Edam). 6 October 2021. Archived from the original on 17 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
  198. "Ukraine War Complicates Turkey's Gas Challenge". Energy Intelligence. 9 March 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2022.
  199. Işik, Yoruk (11 April 2022). "Turkey's current account deficit reaches $5.15 billion in February". Reuters. Retrieved 9 June 2022.
  200. "Turkey to produce 'sweet' natural gas, says minister". Hürriyet Daily News. 28 December 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
  201. "Gas storage capacity to hit 11 bln cubic meters by 2023". Hürriyet Daily News. 9 December 2021. Archived from the original on 26 December 2021. Retrieved 26 December 2021.
  202. 2021 Natural Gas Distribution Sector Report (PDF). Natural Gas Distribution Companies Association of Turkey (GAZBİR) (Report).
  203. Ergur, Semih (5 June 2022). "Increasing Usage of Natural Gas in Turkey and Its Effect on Local Economy". Climate Scorecard. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
  204. Coskun, Orhan (31 March 2022). "Turkey may hike April industry, power plant gas prices more than 20% -sources". Reuters. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
  205. DifiglioGürayMerdan (2020), pp. 203.
  206. DifiglioGürayMerdan (2020), pp. 206.
  207. Adal, Hikmet (25 February 2022). "Russia-Ukraine war: How will it affect Turkey's economy?". Bianet. Archived from the original on 25 February 2022. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  208. "Oil and Gas - Turkey". International Trade Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
  209. Bakheit, Nesreen; Imahashi, Rurika (9 June 2022). "China, India and Turkey to siphon more Russian oil ahead of EU ban". Nikkei Asia. Retrieved 7 July 2022.
  210. Dezem, Vanessa (28 June 2022). "EU Gas Swings as Russia-Turkey Flows Resume While Risks Loom - BNN Bloomberg". BNN Bloomberg. Retrieved 7 July 2022.
  211. "Turkey, Russia gas ties grow contentious amid Ukraine war". Al-Monitor. 28 July 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
  212. Muhdan, Saglam (31 January 2022). "Iran's gas cut exposes Turkey's vulnerability to energy risks". Al-Monitor. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
  213. "Crude Oil".
  214. "Turkey's gasoline prices increase". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
  215. "Total primary energy supply (TPES) by source, Turkey". International Energy Agency. Archived from the original on 1 April 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
  216. "Coal". Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (Turkey). Retrieved 1 November 2020.
  217. "Lignite coal – health effects and recommendations from the health sector" (PDF). Health and Environment Alliance (HEAL). December 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 December 2018. Retrieved 10 January 2019.
  218. Ersoy (2019), p. 5.
  219. "Turkey breaks local coal production record in 2018". Anadolu Agency. 16 January 2019. Archived from the original on 3 February 2019. Retrieved 2 February 2019.
  220. Di̇reskeneli̇, Haluk (3 January 2020). "Enerji piyasalarında 2020 yılı öngörüleri" [2020 energy market outlook]. Enerji Günlüğü (in Turkish).
  221. Yackley, Ayla Jean (3 March 2022). "Turkish inflation pushes past 54% as food and energy prices soar". Financial Times. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  222. "Social and Employment Impacts of Climate Change and Green Economy Policies in Türkiye | United Nations Development Programme". UNDP. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
  223. "Turkey Electricity Review 2022". Ember. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  224. "Turkey transfers operating rights of seven coal fields to private companies". Hürriyet Daily News. 12 October 2018. Archived from the original on 12 October 2018. Retrieved 12 October 2018.
  225. "USGS Chromium Production Statistics" (PDF).
  226. "USGS Boron Production Statistics" (PDF).
  227. "USGS Antimony Production Statistics" (PDF).
  228. "USGS Lead Production Statistics" (PDF).
  229. "USGS Iron Ore Production Statistics" (PDF).
  230. "USGS Molybdenum Production Statistics" (PDF).
  231. "USGS Gypsum Production Statistics" (PDF).
  232. "USGS Graphite Production Statistics" (PDF).
  233. "USGS Salt Production Statistics" (PDF).
  234. "Gold Mining Industry | Turkish Gold Miners Association". Retrieved 5 October 2021.
  235. Greenness of Stimulus Index - 6th Edition (Report). F4B. July 2021.
  236. Acar, Sevil; Challe, Sarah; Christopoulos, Stamatios; Christo, Giovanna (2018). "Fossil fuel subsidies as a lose-lose: Fiscal and environmental burdens in Turkey" (PDF). New Perspectives on Turkey. 58: 93–124. doi:10.1017/npt.2018.7. S2CID 149594404. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2020.
  237. Climate Policy Factbook (Report). BloombergNEF. 20 July 2021. p. 29.
  238. "Turkey". Energy Policy Tracker. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
  239. Climate Policy Factbook (Report). BloombergNEF. 20 July 2021. p. 32.
  240. "Unemployment rises according to Employment Agency, TurkStat says the opposite".
  241. Yilmaz, Onur; Yetisgin, Cansu (27 July 2020). "Turkey's 11th Development Plan Needs to be Updated to Ensure a Green Recovery for Sectors Affected by COVID-19". Climate Scorecard. Retrieved 29 July 2020.
  242. "Anchors aweigh". The Economist. 21 October 2010. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
  243. "Data" (PDF). appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
  244. "Data". appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Economy of Turkey.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.