Hasan ibn Ali

Hasan remained politically inactive during the caliphate of Abu Bakr (r. 632–634).[23] During Umar's caliphate (r. 634–644), Hasan received 5,000 dirhams as a pension from the state revenue.[24] In accounts preserved by Ibn Isfandiyar, Hasan reportedly took part in an expedition of Amol in Tabaristan along with Abd Allah ibn Umar.[6] During the third caliph Uthman's reign (r. 644–656), Hasan participated in the conquest of Tabaristan under Sa'id ibn al-As.[25] Hasan joined his father (defying Uthman) in bidding farewell to Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, who was exiled from Medina after he preached against the misdeeds of the powerful.[26] After Uthman's half-brother, al-Walid ibn Uqba, was accused of drinking alcohol, Ali asked Hasan to carry out the punishment of forty lashes, though Hasan is said to have refused his father's suggestion. Ali is said to have rebuked Hasan, and asked his nephew Abdullah ibn Ja'far to administer the punishment.[6] Laura Veccia Vaglieri writes that some accounts report that Ali instead meted out the punishment.[26] According to Vaglieri, Hasan and Husayn had no role in the important events of the caliphate of Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman. Both Hasan and Husayn were obedient to Ali; they followed their father when he opposed Uthman.[lower-alpha 5][1]

In June 656, Uthman was besieged in his home by rebels. Hasan and Husayn were reportedly wounded, while guarding Uthman's house at Ali's request.[28][29][30] Hasan laid down his weapons on the final day at Uthman's request.[6] Another report says that after Uthman was assassinated, Hasan arrived at the scene of the murder in time to identify his assassins.[1] According to Madelung, Hasan criticized Ali for not doing enough to defend Uthman.[6]

Ali was elected caliph after the assassination of Uthman. Immediately after his accession, the new caliph faced a rebellion led by Aisha, a widow of Muhammad, and Talha and Zubayr, both companions of Muhammad.[31] Hasan was subsequently sent to Kufa to rally support with Ammar ibn Yasir and raised an army of 6,000 to 7,000 men.[1][6] He also helped remove Abu Musa al-Ash'ari from the rule of Kufa,[32] as the latter continued to hinder Ali's efforts against the rebels.[32][28][33] Hasan later fought in the Battle of the Camel (656) against Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr.[6]

Hasan also fought against Mu'awiya (r. 661–680) in the Battle of Siffin (657), though (Sunni) sources do not name him as a prominent participant.[6][34] Madelung also holds that Hasan criticized Ali's alleged aggressive war policy, saying that it stoked division among Muslims.[6] Alternatively, the Sunni Ibn 'Abd al-Barr (d. 1071) lists Hasan as a commander at Siffin and the narrations quoted by the Shia Nasr ibn Muzahim (d. 827-8) indicate that Mu'awiya might have made unsuccessful offers to Hasan to switch sides at Siffin.[35] Haj-Manouchehri believes that Hasan persuaded some neutral figures to support Ali at Siffin, including Sulayman ibn Surad al-Khuza'i, and writes about Hasan's vocal opposition to the arbitration process after Siffin, alongside his father.[35]

In November 658, Ali made Hasan responsible for his land endowments.[6]

19-century painting of Ali (center), Hasan, Husayn, and two angels

Mu'awiya, who had been at war with Ali, did not recognize the caliphate of Hasan and prepared for war. He marched an army of sixty thousand men through al-Jazira to Maskin, about 50 kilometres (31 mi) north of present-day Baghdad. Concurrently, Mu'awiya also negotiated with Hasan by letter, urging him to give up his claim to the caliphate.[44][1] Jafri writes that he might have hoped to force Hasan to abdicate or attack the Iraqi forces before they were fortified. Mu'awiya might have believed that Hasan would remain a threat even if he was defeated and killed, since another Hashemite could continue the fight. If Hasan abdicated in favor of Mu'awiya, he writes, such claims would have no weight.[45] The view of Momen is similar.[46]

Their letters revisit the succession of Muhammad. Hasan urged Mu'awiya to pledge allegiance to him by invoking the same arguments advanced by Ali against Abu Bakr after the death of Muhammad. Ali said that if the Quraysh could successfully claim the leadership because Muhammad belonged to them, then Muhammad's family were the most qualified to lead.[47] Mu'awiya replied that the Muslim community was not unaware of the merits of the ahl al-bayt but had selected Abu Bakr to keep the caliphate within the Quraysh.[48] Hassan also wrote that Mu'awiya had no true merit in Islam and was the son of Muhammad's arch-enemy Abu Sufyan.[47][46] Mu'awiya replied that he was better suited for the caliphate because of his age, military strength, and governing experience,[48][46] thus implying that these qualities were more important than religious precedence.[46] Jafri comments that Mu'awiya's response made explicit the separation of politics and religion, which became a tenet of Sunni Islam. In contrast, Shia Islam vested all authority in the household of Muhammad.[49]

As the news of Mu'awiya's advancing army reached Hasan, he ordered his local governors to mobilize and addressed the people of Kufa: "God had prescribed the jihad for his creation and called it a loathsome duty (kurh)," referring to verse 2:216 of the Quran.[44] There was no response at first,[1] possibly because some tribal chiefs were bribed by Mu'awiya and were reluctant to move.[50] Hasan's companions scolded the crowd and inspired them to leave in large numbers for the army campgrounds in Nukhayla.[50] Hasan soon joined them and appointed Ubayd Allah ibn Abbas as the commander of a vanguard of twelve thousand men tasked with holding Mu'awiya back in Maskin until the arrival of Hasan's main army. He was advised not to fight unless attacked and to consult with Qays ibn Sa'd, the second in command.[50][51][1][52] Wellhausen (d. 1918) names Abd Allah ibn Abbas as the commander of the vanguard[53] but this is rejected by Madelung,[50] who suggests that the choice of Ubayd Allah ibn al-Abbas indicates Hasan's hope of reaching a peaceful conclusion because the former had earlier surrendered Yemen to Mu'awiya without a fight.[6]

Coin minted in present-day Iran in 30 AH (661-662 CE), during Hasan's caliphate; the Arabic phrase lillah (lit. 'for Allah') appears in the margin.

While the vanguard was awaiting his arrival at Maskin, Hasan faced a mutiny at his military camp near al-Mada'in. Jafri writes that there are five accounts of this incident. The account by Abu Hanifa Dinawari (d. 895) states that Hasan was concerned about his troops' resolve by the time he reached the outskirts of al-Mada'in. He thus halted the army at Sabat and told them in a speech that he preferred peace over war because his men were reluctant to fight.[54][55][50]

Taking this as a sign that he intended to pursue peace, Kharijite sympathizers in Hasan's army looted his tent and pulled his prayer rug from under him.[55][42][1] As he was being escorting away to safety, the Kharijite al-Jarrah ibn Sinan attacked and wounded Hasan, while shouting, "You have become an infidel (kafir) like your father."[1][55][56] Al-Jarrah was overpowered and killed,[56] while Hasan, bleeding profusely,[1] was taken for treatment to the house of Sa'd ibn Mas'ud al-Thaqafi, the governor of al-Mada'in.[55][56] The news of this attack further demoralized Hasan's army and led to widespread desertion.[57][1][58] Sa'd's nephew Mukhtar ibn Abi Ubayd (d. 687) reportedly recommended the governor to surrender Hasan to Mu'awiya but was rejected.[59]

The Kufan vanguard arrived in Maskin and found Mu'awiya camped there. Through a representative, he urged them not to commence hostilities until he concluded his peace talks with Hasan. This was a false claim, suspects Madelung, but Mu'awiya probably thought that he could indeed force Hasan to surrender.[60][61] The Kufans, however, insulted Mu'awiya's envoy and sent him back. Mu'awiya then sent the envoy to visit Ubayd Allah privately, telling him that Hasan had requested a truce and offering Ubayd Allah a million dirhams to switch sides. Ubayd Allah accepted and deserted at night to Mu'awiya, who fulfilled his promise to him.[62][60][63]

The next morning, second-in-command Qays ibn Sa'd took charge of Hasan's troops and denounced Ubayd Allah in a sermon. Believing that Ubayd Allah's desertion had broken his enemy's spirit, Mu'awiya sent a contingent to force surrender but was pushed back twice.[64] He then offered bribes to Qays in a letter, which he refused.[64][63] As the news of the mutiny against Hasan and the attempt at his life arrived, however, both sides abstained from fighting and awaited further developments.[65] Veccia Vaglieri writes that the Iraqis had no wish to fight, and a group deserted every day.[1] By one account, 8,000 men out of 12,000 followed Ubayd Allah's example and joined Mu'awiya.[63][1]

Mu'awiya now sent envoys to propose that Hasan abdicate in his favor to spare Muslim blood. In return, Mu'awiya was ready to designate Hasan as his successor, grant him safety, and offer him a large financial settlement.[65][46] Hasan now sent his representative(s) to Mu'awiya and the latter gave Hasan carte blanche, inviting him to dictate what he wanted. Hasan wrote that he would surrender Muslim rule to Mu'awiya if he would comply with the Quran and sunna, his successor would be appointed by a council (shura), the people would remain safe, and Hasan's supporters would receive amnesty.[6][66] His letter was witnessed by two representatives, who gave it to Mu'awiya.[67] He thus renounced the caliphate in August 661 after a seven-month reign.[6][68][69]

Veccia Vaglieri finds certain variants of the treaty impossible to reconcile. She lists several conditions and questions their veracity, including an annual payment of one or two million dinars to Hasan, a single payment of five million dinars from the treasury of Kufa, annual revenues from variously-named districts in Persia, succession of Hasan to Mu'awiya or a council (shura) after Mu'awiya, and preference given to the Banu Hashim over the Banu Umayyad in pensions.[1]

Jafri similarly notes that al-Tabari (d. 923), Dinawari, Ibn Abd al-Barr, and Ibn al-Athir record the terms differently and ambiguously, while al-Ya'qubi (d. 897-8) and al-Masudi (d. 956) are silent about them. In particular, Jafri finds the timing of the Mu'awiya's carte blanche confusing in al-Tabari's account.[70] Al-Tabari also mentions a single payment of five million dinnars to Hasan from the treasury of Kufa,[71][1] though Jafri rejects this, saying that the treasury of Kufa was already in Hasan's possession at that point and that Ali regularly emptied the treasury and distributed the funds among the public.[71]

Jafri then argues that the most comprehensive account is the one given by Ahmad ibn A'tham, probably taken from al-Mada'ini (d. 843), who recorded the terms in two parts. The first part are the conditions proposed by Abd Allah ibn Nawfal, who negotiated on Hasan's behalf with Mu'awiya in Maskin.[lower-alpha 6] The second part are what Hasan stipulated in carte blanche.[lower-alpha 7] These two sets of conditions together encompass all the conditions scattered in the early sources.[74]

Jafri thus concludes that Hasan's final conditions in carte blanche were that Mu'awiya should act according to the Quran, sunna, and the conduct of the Rashidun caliphs, that the people should remain safe, and that the successor to Mu'awiya should be appointed by a council.[6] These conditions are echoed by Madelung.[66] Since Ali and his house rejected the conduct of Abu Bakr and Umar in the shura after the Umar, Jafri suggests that the clause about following the Rashidun caliphs was inserted by later Sunni authors.[75] That Mu'awiya agreed to an amnesty for the supporters of Ali indicates that the revenge for Uthman was a pretext for him to seize the caliphate, according to Jafri.[69]

During the surrender ceremony, Mu'awiya demanded Hasan to publicly apologize. Hasan rose and reminded the people that he and Husayn were Muhammad's only grandsons and the right to the caliphate was his and not Mu'awiya's, but he had surrendered it to avoid bloodshed.[6] In his speech, Mu'awiya recanted his earlier promises to Hasan and others, saying that those promises were made to shorten the war.[6] As reported by the Mu'tazilite Ibn Abi'l-Hadid (d. 1258) and Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani (d. 967), Mu'awiya added that he had not fought the Iraqis so that they would practice Islam, which they were already doing, but to be their master (amir).[76] The Sunni al-Baladhuri (d. 892) writes that Mu'awiya then gave them three days to pledge allegiance or be killed. The people thus rushed to vow allegiance to Mu'awiya.[77] Hasan left Kufa for Medina but soon received a request from Mu'awiya to subdue a Kharijite revolt near Kufa. He wrote back to Mu'awiya that he had given up his claim to the caliphate for the sake of peace and compromise, not to fight on his side.[78][79][1]

Between his abdication in 41/661 and his death in 50/670, Hasan lived quietly in Medina and did not engage in politics.[34] In compliance with the peace treaty, Hasan declined requests from (often small) Shia groups to lead them against Mu'awiya.[80][81] He was nevertheless considered the head of Muhammad's household by the Banu Hashim and Ali's partisans, who had probably pinned their hopes on his succession to Mu'awiya.[82] Al-Baladhuri in Ansab writes that Hasan sent tax collectors to the Fasa and Darabjird provinces of Iran in accordance with the treaty but the governor of Basra, instructed by Mu'awiya, incited the Basrans against Hasan and his tax collectors were driven out of the provinces. Madelung regards this account as fictitious because Hasan had just refused to join Mu'awiya in fighting the Kharijites, adding that the former had made no financial stipulations in his peace proposal.[83] He suggests that the relations between the two men deteriorated when Mu'awiya realized that Hasan would not actively support his regime.[6]

The tomb of Al-Baqi Cemetery, which stood over the qabr (Arabic: قَبْر, grave) of Hasan and was demolished in 1925

Before his death, Hasan had instructed his family to bury him next to Muhammad; if they "feared evil," however, they were to bury him near his mother in the cemetery of al-Baqi. Sa'id ibn al-'As, the Umayyad governor of Medina, was not opposed to burying Hasan near Muhammad; Marwan strongly objected, arguing that Uthman had been buried in al-Baqi. Aisha also reportedly opposed the burial of Hasan next to Muhammad.[93][89] Abu Hurayra, who had served Mu'awiya,[94] unsuccessfully attempted to persuade Marwan to allow Hasan's burial next to Muhammad by reminding him of Muhammad's high esteem for Hasan and Husayn.[89] Supporters of Husayn and Marwan from the Banu Hashim and Banu Umayyad, respectively, gathered with weapons. Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya reportedly intervened, citing Hasan's burial request to Husayn, and it was decided to bury him in al-Baqi.[89] According to Madelung, Mu'awiya rewarded Marwan for his stand by reinstating him as governor of Medina.[6]

As Hasan's body was carried to al-Baqi, Marwan reportedly joined the procession and paid tribute to a man "whose forbearance (hilm) weighed mountains."[95][96] The governor of Medina, Sa'id ibn al-As, was said to have led the funeral prayer, in line with contemporary customs.[97][98] Hasan's tomb was later made a domed shrine, which was destroyed twice by the Wahhabis: in 1806 and 1927.[lower-alpha 10][6]

Muslims regard Hasan and Husayn as participants in the event of Mubahala and members of the ahl al-bayt, ahl al-kisa,[12] and Muhammad's love for them has been well-reported;[6] a hadith attributed to Muhammad says that they would be sayyids (lit. 'chiefs') of the youth in Paradise.[lower-alpha 16][1][119] Jami'a al-Tirmidhi (a canonical Sunni hadith collection) notes that, taking Hasan and Husayn by the hand, Muhammad said: "Whoever loves me and loves these two and loves their mother and father, will be with me in my station on the Day of Resurrection."[120] Muhammad is also widely reported to have said, "He who has loved Hasan and Husayn has loved me and he who has hated them has hated me."[119][121] Muhammad allowed the boys to climb on his back while he was prostrate in prayer,[1] and reportedly interrupted a sermon to pick Hasan up after his grandson fell.[1][119]

About Hasan's abdication, historian Dakake said that sources hostile to Hasan interpret his peace treaty with Mu'awiya as a sign of weakness; Hasan intended to surrender from the beginning, and fought half-heartedly.[122] Other sources reject this view, saying that Hasan's abdication was as inevitable after the Kufan mutiny as Ali's acceptance of arbitration; like Ali after Muhammad's death, Hasan was motivated by the desire for unity and peace in the Muslim community.[122] Muhammad reportedly predicted that Hasan would restore peace among the Muslims.[123]

Among Muʿtazila Muslims, Hasan's abdication became the source of debates about the possibility of ousting an Imam which were closely related to their view of the legitimacy of Mu'awiya's caliphate. Muʿtazila theologians refused to recognize Mu'awiya caliphate, saying that Hasan remained Imam even after the peace treaty with Mu'awiya. Sunni theologians recognized Mu'awiya's caliphate, however, and regarded the peace treaty as Hasan's resignation from the imamate.[124] According to the Muʿtazila, only a wrong deed by an unrepentant Imam would disqualify him from the imamate after receiving oaths of allegiance; otherwise, an Imam has no right to resign or pledge his allegiance to another person. According to al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar, based on his ijtihad, Hasan felt that the Kufans would abandon him if he fought Mu'awiya and was compelled to pursue peace.[125] In al-Jubba'i's view, Hasan's reluctant pledge of allegiance to Mu'awiya did not disqualify him from the imamate or legitimize Mu'awiya's caliphate. As a person would not become an infidel if he professes disbelief to save his life, an Imam can pledge allegiance without believing in it. According to al-Jubba'i, others (such as Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, Sa'id ibn Zayd and Abdullah ibn Umar) might have also reluctantly sworn fealty to Mu'awiya. Ibn Mulahmi, a disciple of Abu al-Husayn al-Basri, echoed al-Jubba'i's view of Hasan: "How can it be imagined that Hasan, who planned to fight Mu'awiya to secure his oath of allegiance, would agree to relinquish the caliphate without reluctance?"[125]

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During the eighth and ninth centuries, there was a diversity of opinions about which caliphs were "rightly-guided" (rāshidūn), meaning those whose actions and opinions were considered worthy of emulation from a religious point of view.[126] After the ninth century, however, the first four caliphs became canonical in Sunni Islam: Abu Bakr (r. 632–634), Umar (r. 634–644), Uthman (r. 644–656) and Ali (r. 656–661).[127] A fifth caliph, the Umayyad Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (r. 717–720), was cited by ninth-century Sunni hadith collector Abu Dawud al-Sijistani.[128] Another five-caliph hypothesis may have included Hasan as the fifth caliph, whose six-month reign was needed to complete the thirty-year period after Abu Bakr's ascension (reportedly predicted by Muhammad as the length of the prophetic succession). This is also indicated by Abu Dawud al-Tayalisi's version of this narrative, which avoided counting Hasan as the fifth caliph by adding six months to Umar's caliphate.[127]

Sunni Muslims accept Hasan's peace treaty with Mu'awiya with a hadith, attributed to Muhammad, which reportedly predicted that Hasan would unite two warring Muslim parties. By legitimizing Mu'awiya's caliphate, they view the peace treaty as voluntary resignation from the caliphate and imamate; the year of the treaty is called ʿām al-jamāʿa (lit. 'the year of unity') in a number of early Sunni sources.[129][130] According to Sunni Islam, an imam cannot be ousted or resign if he is aware of the divisiveness of his decision; however, he can abdicate if he considers his resignation to be in the best interest of Muslims. Hasan's abdication was a voluntary decision to avoid bloodshed.[125]

Hasan is regarded by Shia Islam as its second infallible imam, who was designated by his father Ali.[1] He is also venerated because he was born of a divinely-ordained marriage. Shortly after the migration to Medina, Shia sources say that Muhammad followed divine orders and gave Ali his daughter Fatima in marriage.[30] In Shia belief, theirs was the only house that Gabriel allowed to have a door which opened onto the courtyard of The Prophet's Mosque.[123] In Shia Islam, his epithet is al-Mujtaba ("the chosen").[119] Shia theologians have examined the events leading to the peace treaty, citing the disintegration of Hasan's corps, abandonment by his allies, the looting of his military campground, and his assassination attempt as reasons to pursue peace. His infallibility (ismah) as the second Shia imam further justifies this course of action. Sharif al-Murtaza wrote that Hasan reluctantly agreed to peace, and his abdication has been viewed by the Shia as an act of taqiya; he pledged allegiance to Mu'awiya to end the civil war, and Shia theologians have referred to the treaty as a ceasefire (muhādana) or agreement (muʾāhada). According to Shia author Muhammad ibn Bahr al-Shaybani, Mu'awiya did not comply with any of the articles of the treaty (indicating that the compromise was not an alliance). The treaty did not elevate Mu'awiya above Hasan and did not require obedience, evidenced by reports that one condition was that Mu'awiya not be called amir al-mu'minin (lit. 'the commander of the faithful'). This, and reports that Hasan refused to join Mu'awiya in fighting the Kharijites, indicate that he did not recognize Mu'awiya's caliphate.[131]

Madelung wrote that although Ali had apparently not nominated a successor before his sudden death, he said several times that only members of Muhammad's household (ahl al-bayt) were entitled to the caliphate. Hasan (whom Ali had appointed his legatee) must have been the obvious choice, and was elected the next caliph soon after Ali's death.[132][1] Ali reportedly regarded Hasan as his waliu'l amr (with his own authority to command), and saw him as his waliu'l dam; avenging Ali's murder was up to Hasan.[133]

In Shia theology, the designation of Hasan as imam was made through nass: the divine decree of Ali. According to a Shia tradition recorded by al-Kulayni, Ali gave al-Jafr and his armor to Hasan in front his family and the Shia leaders before his death and said:

O my son, the Apostle has commanded me to give you the designation and to bequeath to you the secret books and the armor, in the same way that he gave them to me. And when you die you are to give them to your brother Husayn ...[134]

Donaldson wrote that there was originally no significant difference between the divine right of imamate, with each imam designating his successor, and other concepts of succession.[135] Veccia Vaglieri said that Hasan's abdication (criticized by some contemporary followers) has not affected his position as imam in Shia Islam, and is viewed in light of his pious detachment from worldly matters.[1][136] Since the designation of Hasan as imam was made through nass, his imamate could not be annulled by abdication; only the outward function of the caliphate transferred to Mu'awiya.[137] In Shia Islam, the imamate cannot be transferred to another person through allegiance or voluntary resignation.[138] A hadith, attributed to Muhammad and present in Shia and Sunni sources, states that Hasan and Husayn were imams "whether they stand up or sit down" (ascend to the caliphate or not).[lower-alpha 17][139] A hadith, attributed to Muhammad and present in Shia and Sunni sources, states that Hasan and Husayn were imams "whether they stand up or sit down" (ascend to the caliphate or not).[lower-alpha 18][139]

According to Donaldson, fewer miracles are attributed to Hasan than to other Shia imams. Veccia Vaglieri disagreed, citing the following: when he was born, Hasan recited the Quran and praised God. Later in life, a dead palm tree produced ripe dates; he fed seventy poor people, and the food did not diminish. Hasan also resurrected a dead man.[140][1]

Persian literature inspired by Hasan can be divided into two categories: historical and mystical. Historical literature includes Hasan's life, imamate, his peace with Mu'awiya, and his death. Mystical literature showcases his virtues and his prominent position in Shia spirituality.[141] Hasan's life has been the subject of poetry from Sanai to the present. Themes are his virtues, Muhammad's admiration of him, and his suffering and death. Poets include Sanai (Hadiqat al Haqiqa), Attar of Nishapur, Ghavami Razi, Rumi, 'Ala' al-Dawla Simnani, Ibn Yamin, Khwaju Kermani, Salman Savoji, Hazin Lahiji, Naziri Neyshabouri, Vesal Shirazi, and Adib al-Malak Farahani.[142]

The series Loneliest Leader, directed in 1996 by Mehdi Fakhimzadeh, narrates Hasan's life, his peace with Mu'awiya, and the condition of the Islamic community after his assassination. The events leading up to Hasan's peace and his attempted assassination in al-Mada'in are also mentioned in the series Mokhtarnameh by Davood Mirbagheri.[143] Muawiya, Hasan and Husayn, a series about Hasan and Husayn, has been criticized as anti-Shia.[144]