Konark Sun Temple

The upper levels and terrace of the Konark Sun temple contain larger and more significant works of art than the lower level. These include images of musicians and mythological narratives as well as sculptures of Hindu deities, including Durga in her Mahishasuramardini aspect killing the shape-shifting buffalo demon (Shaktism), Vishnu in his Jagannatha form (Vaishnavism), and Shiva as a (largely damaged) linga (Shaivism). Some of the better-preserved friezes and sculptures were removed and relocated to museums in Europe and major cities of India before 1940.[30]

The Hindu deities are also depicted in other parts of the temple. For example, the medallions of the chariot wheels of the Surya temple, as well as the anuratha artwork of the jagamohana, show Vishnu, Shiva, Gajalakshmi, Parvati, Krishna, Narasimha, and other divinities.[31] Also found on the jagamohana are sculptures of Vedic deities such as Indra, Agni, Kubera, Varuna, and Âdityas.[32]

The temple follows the traditional style of Kalinga architecture. It is oriented towards the east so that the first rays of the sunrise strike the main entrance.[2] The temple, built from Khondalite rocks,[33][34] was originally constructed at the mouth of the river Chandrabhaga, but the waterline has receded since then. The wheels of the temple are sundials, which can be used to calculate time accurately to a minute.[35]

The Konark Sun Temple complex has ruins of many subsidiary shrines and monuments around the main temple. Some of these include:

• Mayadevi Temple – Located west- been dated to the late 11th century, earlier than the main temple.[36] It consists of a sanctuary, a mandapa and, before it, an open platform. It was discovered during excavations carried out between 1900 and 1910. Early theories assumed that it was dedicated to Surya's wife and thus named the Mayadevi Temple. However, later studies suggested that it was also a Surya temple, albeit an older one that was fused into the complex when the monumental temple was built.[37] This temple also has numerous carvings and a square mandapa is overlain by a sapta-ratha. The sanctum of this Surya temple features a Nataraja. Other deities in the interior include a damaged Surya holding a lotus, along with Agni, Varuna, Vishnu, and Vayu.[38]
• Vaishnava Temple – Located southwest of the so-called Mayadevi Temple, it was discovered during excavations in 1956. This discovery was significant because it confirmed that the Konark Sun Temple complex revered all the major Hindu traditions, and was not an exclusive worship place for the saura cult as previously believed. This is a small temple with sculptures of Balarama, Varaha, and Vamana–Trivikrama in its sanctum, marking it as a Vaishnavite temple. These images are shown as wearing dhoti and a lot of jewelry. The sanctum's primary idol is missing, as are images from some niches in the temple.[39] The site's significance as a place of Vaishnavism pilgrimage is attested to in Vaishnava texts. For example, Chaitanya, the early 16th-century scholar and founder of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, visited the Konark temple and prayed on its premises.[40]
• Kitchen – This monument is found south of the bhoga mandapa (feeding hall). It, too, was discovered in excavations in the 1950s. It includes means to bring water, cisterns to store water, drains, a cooking floor, depressions in the floor probably for pounding spices or grains, as well several triple ovens (chulahs) for cooking. This structure may have been for festive occasions or a part of a community feeding hall.[41] According to Thomas Donaldson, the kitchen complex may have been added a little later than the original temple.[42]
• Well 1 – This monument is located north of the kitchen, towards its eastern flank, was probably built to supply water to the community kitchen and bhoga mandapa. Near the well are a pillared mandapa and five structures, some with semi-circular steps whose role is unclear.[43]
• Well 2 – This monument and associated structures are in the front of the northern staircase of the main temple, with foot rests, a washing platform, and a wash water drain system. It was probably designed for the use of pilgrims arriving at the temple.[44]

A collection of fallen sculptures can be viewed at the Konark Archaeological Museum, which is maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India.[45] The fallen upper portion of the temple is believed to have been studded with many inscriptions.[46]

Konark, also referred to in Indian texts by the name Kainapara, was a significant trading port by the early centuries of the common era.[47] The current Konark temple dates to the 13th century, though evidence suggests that a sun temple was built in the Konark area by at least the 9th century.[48] Several Puranas mention Surya worship centers in Mundira, which may have been the earlier name for Konark, Kalapriya (Mathura), and Multan (now in Pakistan).[49] The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim and traveler Hiuen-tsang (also referred to as Xuanzang) mentions a port city in Odisha named Charitra. He describes the city as prosperous, with five convents and "storeyed towers that are very high and carved with saintly figures exquisitely done". Since he visited India in the 7th century, he could not have been referring to the 13th-century temple, but his description suggests either Konark or another Odisha port city already featuring towering structures with sculptures.[40]

According to the Madala Panji, there was at one time another temple in the region built by Pundara Kesari. He may have been Puranjaya, the 7th-century ruler of the Somavamshi dynasty.[50]

The current temple is attributed to Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga dynasty, r. 1238–1264 CE– . It is one of the few Hindu temples whose planning and construction records written in Sanskrit in the Odia script have been preserved in the form of palm leaf manuscripts that were discovered in a village in the 1960s and subsequently translated.[51] The temple was sponsored by the king, and its construction was overseen by Shiva Samantaraya Mahapatra. It was built near an old Surya temple. The sculpture in the older temple's sanctum was re-consecrated and incorporated into the newer larger temple. This chronology of temple site's evolution is supported by many copper plate inscriptions of the era in which the Konark temple is referred to as the "great cottage".[40]

According to James Harle, the temple as built in the 13th century consisted of two main structures, the dance mandapa and the great temple (deul). The smaller mandapa is the structure that survives; the great deul collapsed sometime in the late 16th century or after. According to Harle, the original temple "must originally have stood to a height of some 225 feet (69 m)", but only parts of its walls and decorative mouldings remain.[5]

A lithography plate from James Fergusson's "Ancient Architecture in Hindoostan" (1847) showing part of the main tower still standing

The temple was in ruins before its restoration. Speculation continues as to the cause of the destruction of the temple. Early theories stated that the temple was never completed and collapsed during construction. This is contradicted by textual evidence and evidence from inscriptions. The Kenduli copper plate inscription of 1384 CE from the reign of Narasimha IV seems to indicate that the temple was not only completed but an active site of worship. Another inscription states that various deities in the temple were consecrated, also suggesting that construction of the temple had been completed.[52] A non-Hindu textual source, the Akbar-era text Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl dated to the 16th century, mentions the Konark temple,[40] describing it as a prosperous site with a temple that made visitors "astonished at its sight", with no mention of ruins.[52][53][54] 200 years later, during the reign of the Marathas in Odisha in the 18th century, a Maratha holy man found the temple abandoned and covered in overgrowth. The Marathas relocated the temple's Aruna stambha (pillar with Aruna the charioteer seated atop it) to the Lion's Gate entrance of the Jagannath Temple in Puri.

Texts from the 19th century do mention ruins, which means the temple was damaged either intentionally or through natural causes sometime between 1556 and 1800 CE. After the Sun Temple ceased to attract faithful, Konark became deserted, left to disappear in dense forests for years.[55]

According to Thomas Donaldson, evidence suggests that the damage and the temple's ruined condition can be dated to between the late 16th century and the early 17th century from the records of various surveys and repairs found in early 17th-century texts. These also record that the temple remained a site of worship in the early 17th century. These records do not state whether the ruins were being used by devotees to gather and worship, or part of the damaged temple was still in use for some other purpose.[56]

In the last quarter of the 18th century, the Aruna stambha (Aruna pillar) was removed from the entrance of Konark temple and placed at the Singha-dwara (Lion's Gate) of the Jagannath temple in Puri by a Maratha Brahmachari named Goswain (or Goswami).[57][58] The pillar, made of monolithic chlorite, is 33 feet 8 inches (10.26 m) tall and is dedicated to Aruna, the charioteer of the Sun god.[58]

Watercolour painting of two European officers with a dog exploring the interior, 1812

In 1803 the East India Marine Board requested the Governor General of Bengal that conservation efforts be undertaken. However, the only conservation measure put in place at the time was to prohibit further removal of stones from the site. Lacking structural support, the last part of the main temple still standing, a small broken curved section, collapsed in 1848.[59] The main temple is completely lost now.[60]

The then-Raja of Khurda, who had jurisdiction over this region in the early 19th century, removed some stones and sculptures to use in a temple he was building in Puri. A few gateways and some sculptures were destroyed in the process.[61] In 1838 the Asiatic Society of Bengal requested that conservation efforts be undertaken, but the requests were denied, and only measures to prevent vandalism were put in place.[59]

In 1859 the Asiatic Society of Bengal proposed, and in 1867 attempted to relocate an architrave of the Konark temple depicting the navagraha to the Indian Museum in Calcutta. This attempt was abandoned as funds had run out.[59] In 1894 thirteen sculptures were moved to the Indian Museum. Local Hindu population objected to further damage and removal of temple ruins. The government issued orders to respect the local sentiments.[59] In 1903, when a major excavation was attempted nearby, the then-Lieutenant governor of Bengal, J. A. Bourdillon, ordered the temple to be sealed and filled with sand to prevent the collapse of the Jagamohana. The Mukhasala and Nata Mandir were repaired by 1905.[52][62]

Sound and light show in Konark Temple

In 1906 casuarina and punnang trees were planted facing the sea to provide a buffer against sand-laden winds.[59] In 1909 the Mayadevi temple was discovered while removing sand and debris.[59] The temple was granted World Heritage Site status by the UNESCO in 1984.[2]

On 8 September 2022, the ASI started removing the sand from Jagamohana which will be completed in three years. The necessary support of stainless steel beams will be installed inside the temple and repairs will be carried out.[60]

Numerous poems, stories, and novels have been written about Konark, most of which explore or expand or reinterpret the tragedies inherent in the legends and stories about the temple. Most recently, Mohanjit's book of poems, Kone Da Suraj, which revolves around Konark, won the Kendra Sahitya Academy Award (one of the top awards for literature in India) for Punjabi language.[69]

The following is a list of notable Odia literary works based on or inspired by Konark:

1. Sachidananda Routray was the second Odia to win the Jnanpith Award, considered the highest literary award in India.[70][71][72] His most famous work is the long poem Baji Rout, which narrates the story of courage and sacrifice by a child, similar to the tale of Dharmapada and his sacrifice for the masons who built Konark. He has written many poems based on the legends of Konarka:
   1. Bhanga Mandira
   2. Konarka
2. Gopabandhu Das was a notable social activist and writer in pre-independence India, who was instrumental in the formation of the state of Odisha. His epic poem Dharmapada[73] is one of the landmarks in Odia literature.[74]
3. Mayadhar Mansingh is a noted Odia poet and writer, who was popularly known for the romantic and erotic metaphors in his work, earning him the nickname of Prēmika kabi (Lover poet). His poems on Konark include:
   1. Konarka
   2. Konarkara Lashya Lila
   3. Mumurshu Konarka
4. Manoj Das is a celebrated Odia writer, with a Kendra Sahitya Akademi Award to his name, among many other recognitions and awards. His second book of poems, Kabita Utkala (published in 2003), has four poems on Konark
   1. Dharmapada: Nirbhul Thikana
   2. Bruntahina Phulara Sthapati: Sibei Santara
   3. Konark Sandhane
   4. Kalapahadara Trushna: Ramachandi
5. Pratibha Ray is a modern Odia novelist and short story writer who has found both critical and commercial success. Her book Shilapadma (published in 1983) won the Odisha Sahitya Academy Award and has been translated to six other languages.[75]

Additionally, the Sun Temple is the setting of "Interpreter of Maladies," a short story in Jhumpa Lahiri's Pulitzer Prize winning collection of the same name.

Emblem of Odisha

The Warrior and Horse statue found in the temple grounds forms the basis of the state emblem of Odisha.

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  Watercolour "Somnath" drawing of the north side of Konark (1820). It depicts part of the main tower still standing.
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  Photograph of a general view from the south-west (c.1890).

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  Konark Sun Temple Extended View
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  Main Temple Structure, Konark Sun Temple
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  Nata mandir
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  Front view of Nata mandir
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  A simha-gaja at the entrance
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  A weathered horse sculpture
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  Elephants of Konark Temple
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  A secondary statue of the Sun god
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  A sculpture on the temple wall
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  Mayadevi Temple at Konark
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  Sculpture of a makara on Mayadevi Temple
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  Vaishnava Temple
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  Sanctum of the Vaishnava Temple
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  Carvings on the Sun temple
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  A sculpture on the temple wall
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  A sculpture taken from the site at the British Museum
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  Replica of Sun Temple at Gwalior
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  Closeup of the motif at the center of a stone wheel
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  Back Side View of Konark Sun Temple
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  Rosasala or kitchen of the temple complex
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  A long exposure photo of the beautiful Sun Temple, Konark, Odisha, at night