Punjab, Pakistan

One of the first known kings of ancient Punjab, Porus who fought against Alexander the Great.

The Punjab region is noted as the site of one of the earliest urban societies, the Indus Valley Civilization that flourished from about 3000 B.C. and declined rapidly 1,000 years later, following the Indo-Aryan migrations that overran the region in waves between 1500 and 500 B.C.[35] Frequent intertribal wars stimulated the growth of larger groupings ruled by chieftains and kings, who ruled local kingdoms known as Mahajanapadas.[35] The rise of kingdoms and dynasties in the Punjab is chronicled in the ancient Hindu epics, particularly the Mahabharata.[35]

Multan was the noted centre of excellence of the region which was attacked by Greek army led by Alexander the great. The Mali tribe together with nearby tribes gathered an army of 90,000 personnel to face Greek army. This was the largest army faced by Greeks in entire subcontinent.[11] During the siege of the city's citadel, the Alexander leaped into the inner area of the citadel, where he killed the Mallians' leader. Alexander was wounded by an arrow that had penetrated his lung, leaving him severely injured. The city was conquered after a fierce battle.[11][36]

In 326 B.C. The earliest known notable local king of this region was known as Porus, who fought the famous Battle of the Hydaspes against Alexander the Great. His kingdom spanned between rivers Hydaspes (Jhelum) and Acesines (Chenab); Strabo had held the territory to contain almost 300 cities.[37] He (alongside Abisares) had a hostile relationship with the Kingdom of Taxila which was ruled by his extended family.[37] When the armies of Alexander crossed Indus in its eastward migration, probably in Udabhandapura, he was greeted by the-then ruler of Taxila, Omphis.[37] Omphis had hoped to force both Porus and Abisares into submission leveraging the might of Alexander's forces and diplomatic missions were mounted, but while Abisares accepted the submission, Porus refused.[37] This led Alexander to seek for a face-off with Porus.[37] Thus began the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC; the exact site remains unknown.[37] The battle is thought to be resulted in a decisive Greek victory; however, A. B. Bosworth warns against an uncritical reading of Greek sources who were obviously exaggerative.[37] Alexander later founded two cities—Nicaea at the site of victory and Bucephalous at the battle-ground, in memory of his horse, who died soon after the battle.[37][lower-alpha 1] Later, tetradrachms would be minted depicting Alexander on horseback, armed with a sarissa and attacking a pair of Indians on an elephant.[37][38] Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant, until he was wounded and his force routed.[37] When asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated, Porus replied "Treat me as a king would treat another king".[39] Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose to not depose him.[40][41][42] Not only was his territory reinstated but also expanded with Alexander's forces annexing the territories of Glausaes, who ruled to the northeast of Porus' kingdom.[40] After Alexander's death in 323 BCE, Perdiccas became the regent of his empire, and after Perdiccas's murder in 321 BCE, Antipater became the new regent.[43] According to Diodorus, Antipater recognized Porus's authority over the territories along the Indus River. However, Eudemus, who had served as Alexander's satrap in the Punjab region, treacherously killed Porus.[44] The battle is historically significant because it resulted in the syncretism of ancient Greek political and cultural influences to the Indian subcontinent, yielding works such as Greco-Buddhist art, which continued to have an impact for the ensuing centuries. The region was then divided between the Maurya Empire and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom in 302 B.C.E. Menander I Soter conquered Punjab and made Sagala (present-day Sialkot) the capital of the Indo-Greek Kingdom.[45][46] Menander is noted for having become a patron and convert to Greco-Buddhism and he is widely regarded as the greatest of the Indo-Greek kings.[47] Greek influence in the region ended around 12 B.C.E. when the Punjab fell under the Sassanids.

Islam emerged as the major power in southern Punjab after the Umayyad caliphate conquered the region in 711 AD.[35] The city of Multan became a center of the Ismaili sect of Islam. Umayyads after conquering key cities of Uch and Multan inhabited thousands of Arabs in Multan, These Arabs ruled the vast areas of Punjab for next 3 centuries. From their capital in Multan they ruled the far areas of Kashmir. Islam spread rapidly.[11][48]

In the ninth century, the Hindu Shahi dynasty emerged in the Punjab, ruling much of Punjab and eastern Afghanistan.[35] Lahore emerged as an important city of Central Punjab in late 10th century. It was ruled by Arabs of Emirate of Multan and then by Hindu Shahi Empire.[48] The 10th century Arab historian Masudi mentioned that in his time the kings of Gandhara were all called Hajaj, J.haj or Ch'hach, while the area itself was called "country of the Rahbūt" (Rajputs).[49] The character transliterated to "Hahaj" and Alexander Cunningham had it equated to the Janjua tribe/clan.[50] Rahman doubts this theory and instead transliterates to "J.haj", an Arabicised form of Chhachh, which is even today the name of the region around the Hindu Shahi capital of Hund.[50] In the 10th century, this region was occupied by the tribe of the Gakhars/Khokhars, who formed a large part of the Hindu Shahi army according to the Persian historian Firishta.[50]

Horseman on a coin of Spalapati, i.e. the "War-lord" of the Hindu Shahis. The headgear has been interpreted as a turban.[51]

Ghaznavid rule

The Turkic Ghaznavids in the tenth century attacked the regions of Punjab. Multan and Uch were conquered after 3 attacks and Multan's Arab ruler Abul Fateh Daud was defeated, thousands of Hindus and Ismailis were killed according to 11th century scholar Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi, though the community was not extinguished,[52] famous Sun Temple was destroyed. This ended the 3 centuries Arab rule over Punjab.[11] Ghaznavids overthrew the Hindu Shahis and consequently ruled for 157 years, gradually declining as a power until the Ghurid conquests of key Punjab cities of Uch, Multan and Lahore by Muhammad of Ghor in 1186, deposing the last Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik.[11][53]

Following the death of Muhammad of Ghor in 1206, the Ghurid state fragmented and was replaced in northern India by the Delhi Sultanate and for some time independent sultanates ruled by various Sultans.[11] The Delhi Sultanate ruled the Punjab for the next three hundred years, led by five unrelated dynasties, the Mamluks, Khalajis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids and Lodis.

Tughlaqs rule

Ghiyath al Din Tughlaq, the former governor of Multan and Dipalpur founded Tughlaq dynasty in Delhi and ruled the subcontinent region . Earlier he served as the governor of Multan and fought 28 battles against Mongols from there and saved Punjab and Sindh regions from advances of Mongols and had survived. After his death his son Muhammad Tughlaq became the emperor.[11]

Mongol invasion

15th century saw rise of many prominent Muslims from Punjab. Khizr Khan established the Sayyid dynasty, the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate after the fall of the Tughlaqs.[54]

Mongols led by Timur attacked the Punjab region. Multan's governor Khizr Khan allied with Timur for Mongols rule in subcontinent. Timur also captured Lahore and gave its control to Khizr Khan. Together they sacked Delhi sultanate and Timur gave Khizr Khan the throne of subcontinent. Who ruled on the name of Timur.[11] Khizr Khan established Sayyid Dynasty which ruled the subcontinent from 1414-1451.[55] A contemporary writer Yahya Sirhindi mentions in his Takhrikh-i-Mubarak Shahi that Khizr Khan was a descendant of prophet Muhammad.[56] Members of the dynasty derived their title, Sayyid, or the descendants of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, based on the claim that they belonged to his lineage through his daughter Fatima. However, Yahya Sirhindi based his conclusions on unsubstantial evidence, the first being a casual recognition by the famous saint Sayyid Jalaluddin Bukhari of Uch Sharif of his Sayyid heritage,[57] and secondly the noble character of the Sultan which distinguished him as a Prophet's descendant.[58]

Copper coin of Muzaffar Shah, founder of the Gujarat Sultanate.[59]

According to Richard M. Eaton, Khizr Khan was son of a Punjabi chieftain.[54] He was a Khokhar chieftain who travelled to Samarkand and profited from the contacts he made with the Timurid society[60] Later on, Delhi Sultanate, weakened by invasion of Emir Timur, could not control all regions of the Empire and different local kingdoms appeared. In 1407, Sultan Muzaffar Shah I, a Tank Rajput[61] or a Khatri[62] Muslim from Punjab[59] established the Gujarat Sultanate.

In 1445, Sultan Qutbudin, chief of Langah, a Jat Zamindar tribe[63][64][65][66] established the Langah Sultanate in Multan. The Sultanate included regions of southern and central Punjab and areas of Khyber and Balochistan. A large number of Baloch settlers arrived and towns of Dera Ghazi Khan and Dera Ismail Khan were founded.[67]

Another prominent name is that of Jasrath Khokhar who helped Sultan Zain Ul Abideen of Kashmir to gain his throne and ruled over vast tracts of Jammu and North Punjab. He also conquered Delhi for a brief period in 1431 but was driven out by Mubarak Shah.[68]

During Mughal period Punjab region was divided into two provinces; Multan province and Lahore province. Multan province consisted of southern Punjab and few regions of central Punjab, parts of Khyber and Balochistan areas , bordering Kandahar province and Persian Safavid Empire. Lahore province included parts of central and northern Punjab and the Indian Punjab region, bordering Delhi and Kashmir provinces.[69]

The Mughals came to power in the early sixteenth century and gradually expanded to control all of the Punjab from their various capitals.[69] During the Mughal era, Saadullah Khan, born into a family of Jat agriculturalists[70] belonging to the Thaheem tribe[71] from Chiniot[72] remained Grand vizier (or Prime Minister) of the Mughal empire in the period 1645-1656.[72] Lahore served as Mughal capital for many years. Other capitals included Delhi, Fatehpur, Agra and Kabul etc.[69] Other prominent Muslims from Punjab who rose to nobility during the Mughal Era include Wazir Khan,[73] Adina Beg Arain,[74] and Shahbaz Khan Kamboh.[75]

The Mughal Empire ruled the region until it was severely weakened in the eighteenth century.[35] As Mughal power weakened, Afghan rulers took control of the region.[35] Contested by Marathas and Afghans, the region was the center of the growing influence of the Sikhs, who expanded and established the Sikh empire as the Mughals and Afghans weakened, ultimately ruling the Punjab, eastern Afghanistan, and territories north into the Himalayas.[35]

Illustration of Ranjit Singh, founder of the Sikh Empire.

The Sikh Empire ruled the Punjab until the British annexed it in 1849 following the First and Second Anglo-Sikh Wars.[76]

British Rule

Most of the Punjabi homeland formed a province of British India, though a number of small princely states retained local rulers who recognized British authority.[35] The Punjab with its rich farmlands became one of the most important colonial assets.[35] Lahore was a noted center of learning and culture, and Rawalpindi became an important military installation.[35] Multan remained an important settlement and Bahawalpur had emerged as another important city.[77]

Most Punjabis supported the British during World War I, providing men and resources to the war effort even though the Punjab remained a source of anti colonial activities.[78] Disturbances in the region increased as the war continued.[35] At the end of the war, high casualty rates, heavy taxation, inflation, and a widespread influenza epidemic disrupted Punjabi society.[35] In 1919 a British officer ordered his troops to fire on a crowd of demonstrators, mostly Sikhs in Amritsar. The Jallianwala massacre fueled the indian independence movement.[35] Nationalists declared the independence of India from Lahore in 1930 but were quickly suppressed.[35]

When the Second World War broke out, nationalism in British India had already divided into religious movements.[35] Many Sikhs and other minorities supported the Hindus, who promised a secular multicultural and multireligious society, and Muslim leaders in Lahore passed a resolution to work for a Muslim Pakistan, making the Punjab region a center of growing conflict between Indian and Pakistani nationalists.[35] At the end of the war, the British granted separate independence to India and Pakistan, setting off massive communal violence as Muslims fled to Pakistan and Hindu and Sikh Punjabis fled east to India.[35]

The British Raj had major political, cultural, philosophical, and literary consequences in the Punjab, including the establishment of a new system of education. During the independence movement, many Punjabis played a significant role, including Madan Lal Dhingra, Sukhdev Thapar, Ajit Singh Sandhu, Bhagat Singh, Udham Singh, Kartar Singh Sarabha, Bhai Parmanand, Choudhry Rahmat Ali, and Lala Lajpat Rai. At the time of partition in 1947, the province was split into East and West Punjab. East Punjab (48%) became part of India, while West Punjab (52%) became part of Pakistan.[79] The Punjab bore the brunt of the civil unrest following partition, with casualties estimated to be in the millions.[80][81][82][83]

Another major consequence of partition was the sudden shift towards religious homogeneity occurred in all districts across Punjab owing to the new international border that cut through the province. This rapid demographic shift was primarily due to wide scale migration but also caused by large-scale religious cleansing riots which were witnessed across the region at the time. According to historical demographer Tim Dyson, in the eastern regions of Punjab that ultimately became Indian Punjab following independence, districts that were 66% Hindu in 1941 became 80% Hindu in 1951; those that were 20% Sikh became 50% Sikh in 1951. Conversely, in the western regions of Punjab that ultimately became Pakistani Punjab, all districts became almost exclusively Muslim by 1951.[84]

Punjab features mountainous terrain near the hill station of Murree.

The route from Dera Ghazi Khan to Fort Munro

Punjab's landscape consists mostly consists of fertile alluvial plains of the Indus River and its four major tributaries in Pakistan, the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, and Sutlej rivers which traverse Punjab north to south – the fifth of the "five waters" of Punjab, the Beas River, lies exclusively in the Indian state of Punjab. The landscape is amongst the most heavily irrigated on earth and canals can be found throughout the province. Punjab also includes several mountainous regions, including the Sulaiman Mountains in the southwest part of the province, the Margalla Hills in the north near Islamabad, and the Salt Range which divides the most northerly portion of Punjab, the Pothohar Plateau, from the rest of the province. Sparse deserts can be found in southern Punjab near the border with Rajasthan and near the Sulaiman Range. Punjab also contains part of the Thal and Cholistan deserts. In the South, Punjab's elevation reaches 2,327 metres (7,635 ft) near the hill station of Fort Munro in Dera Ghazi Khan.

Sunset in Punjab, during summer

Most areas in Punjab experience extreme weather with foggy winters, often accompanied by rain. By mid-February the temperature begins to rise; springtime weather continues until mid-April, when the summer heat sets in. The onset of the southwest monsoon is anticipated to reach Punjab by May, but since the early 1970s, the weather pattern has been irregular. The spring monsoon has either skipped over the area or has caused it to rain so hard that floods have resulted. June and July are oppressively hot. Although official estimates rarely place the temperature above 46 °C, newspaper sources claim that it reaches 51 °C and regularly carry reports about people who have succumbed to the heat. Heat records were broken in Multan in June 1993, when the mercury was reported to have risen to 54 °C. In August the oppressive heat is punctuated by the rainy season, referred to as barsat, which brings relief in its wake. The hardest part of the summer is then over, but cooler weather does not come until late October.

Recently the province experienced one of the coldest winters in the last 70 years.[88]

Punjab's region temperature ranges from −2° to 45 °C, but can reach 50 °C (122 °F) in summer and can touch down to −10 °C in winter.

Climatically, Punjab has three major seasons:[89]

• Hot weather (April to June) when temperature rises as high as 123 °F (51 °C).
• Rainy season (July to September). Average rainfall annual ranges between 96 cm sub-mountain region and 46 cm in the plains.
• Cold / Foggy / mild weather (October to March). Temperature goes down as low as 35.6 °F (2.0 °C).

Weather extremes are notable from the hot and barren south to the cool hills of the north. The foothills of the Himalayas are found in the extreme north as well, and feature a much cooler and wetter climate, with snowfall common at higher altitudes.

The province is home to over half the population of Pakistan, and is the world's fifth-most populous subnational entity, and the most populous outside China or India. Punjab has the lowest poverty rates in Pakistan, although a divide is present between the northern and southern parts of the province.[15] Sialkot District in the prosperous northern part of the province has a poverty rate of 5.63%,[92] while Rajanpur District in the poorer south has a poverty rate of 60.05%.[19]

The major native language spoken in the Punjab is Punjabi, representing the largest language spoken in the country. Punjabi is recognized as the provincial language of Punjab but is not given any official recognition in the Constitution of Pakistan at the national level.

Several languages closely related to Punjabi are spoken in the periphery of the region. In the southern half of Punjab, the majority language is Saraiki, while in the north there are speakers of Hindko and Pothwari.[94] Pashto is also spoken in some parts of Punjab, especially in Attock, Mianwali and Rawalpindi districts.[95]

A demonstration by Punjabis at Lahore, Pakistan, demanding to make Punjabi as official language of instruction in schools of the Punjab.

The use of Urdu and English as the near exclusive languages of broadcasting, the public sector, and formal education have led some to fear that Punjabi in Pakistan is being relegated to a low-status language and that it is being denied an environment where it can flourish. Several prominent educational leaders, researchers, and social commentators have echoed the opinion that the intentional promotion of Urdu and the continued denial of any official sanction or recognition of the Punjabi language amounts to a process of "Urdu-isation" that is detrimental to the health of the Punjabi language[96][97][98] In August 2015, the Pakistan Academy of Letters, International Writer's Council (IWC) and World Punjabi Congress (WPC) organised the Khawaja Farid Conference and demanded that a Punjabi-language university should be established in Lahore and that Punjabi language should be declared as the medium of instruction at the primary level.[99][100] In September 2015, a case was filed in Supreme Court of Pakistan against Government of Punjab, Pakistan as it did not take any step to implement the Punjabi language in the province.[101][102] Additionally, several thousand Punjabis gather in Lahore every year on International Mother Language Day.

Hafiz Saeed, chief of Jama'at-ud-Da'wah (JuD) has questioned Pakistan's decision to adopt Urdu as its national language in a country where majority of people speak Punjabi language, citing his interpretation of Islamic doctrine as encouraging education in the mother-tongue.[103] The list of thinktanks, political organisations, cultural projects, and individuals that demand authorities at the national and provincial level to promote the use of the language in the public and official spheres includes:

• Cultural and research institutes: Punjabi Adabi Board, the Khoj Garh Research Centre, Punjabi Prachar, Institute for Peace and Secular Studies, Adbi Sangat, Khaaksaar Tehreek, Saanjh, Maan Boli Research Centre, Punjabi Sangat Pakistan, Punjabi Markaz, Sver International
• Trade unions and youth groups: Punjabi Writers Forum, National Students Federation, Punjabi Union-Pakistan, Punjabi National Conference, National Youth Forum, Punjabi Writers Forum, National Students Federation, Punjabi Union, Pakistan, and the Punjabi National Conference.
• Notable activists include Tariq Jatala, Farhad Iqbal, Diep Saeeda, Khalil Ojla, Afzal Sahir, Jamil Ahmad Paul, Mazhar Tirmazi, Mushtaq Sufi, Biya Je, Tohid Ahmad Chattha and Bilal Shaker Kahaloon, Nazeer Kahut[104][105][106]

Religion in Punjab, Pakistan[lower-alpha 2]

Religion	Population (1941)[109]	Percentage (1941)	Population (2017)[108]	Percentage (2017)
Islam	12,983,076	75%	107,559,164	97.77%
Hinduism [lower-alpha 3]	2,376,309	13.73%	220,024	0.2%
Sikhism	1,527,345	8.82%	N/A	N/A
Christianity	382,669	2.21%	2,068,233	1.88%
Others[lower-alpha 4]	40,458	0.23%	3,455	0%
Total Population	17,309,857	100%	110,012,442	100%

The Punjabi people first practiced Hinduism, the oldest recorded religion in the Punjab region.[110] The historical Vedic religion constituted the religious ideas and practices in the Punjab during the Vedic period (1500–500 BCE).[111][112][113][114] It is one of the major traditions which shaped Hinduism, though present-day Hinduism is markedly different from the historical Vedic religion.[113][115][116] The bulk of the Rigveda was composed in the Punjab region between circa 1500 and 1200 BC,[117] while later Vedic scriptures were composed more eastwards, between the Yamuna and Ganges rivers. An ancient Indian law book called the Manusmriti, developed by Brahmin Hindu priests, shaped Punjabi religious life from 200 BC onward.[118] Later, the spread of Buddhisim and Jainism in the Indian subcontinent saw the growth of Buddhism and Jainism in the Punjab.[119] Islam was introduced via southern Punjab in the 8th century, becoming the majority by the 16th century, via local conversion.[120][121] There was a small Jain community left in Punjab by the 16th century, while the Buddhist community had largely disappeared by the turn of the 10th century.[122] The region became predominantly Muslim due to missionary Sufi saints whose dargahs dot the landscape of the Punjab region.[123] The rise of Sikhism in the 1700s saw some Punjabis, both Hindu and Muslim, accepting the new Sikh faith.[118][124] A number of Punjabis during the colonial period of India became Christians, with all of these religions characterizing the religious diversity now found in the Punjab region.[118]

The population of Punjab (Pakistan) is estimated to be 110,012,442, of which as per as 2017 census, 107,559,164 i.e. (97.2%) Muslim with a Sunni Hanafi majority and a Shia Ithna 'ashariyah minority. The largest non-Muslim minority is Christians and make up 2,068,233 i.e. (2.5%) of the population. Hindus form about 220,024 people I.e (0.2%) of the population. The other minorities include Sikhs, Parsis and Baháʼís.[108]

Map of the Pakistani Punjab divisions

When the divisions were restored as a tier of government in 2008, a tenth division – Sheikhupura Division – was created from part of Lahore Division.

Main entrance to The university of Sargodha

A women's college in Rawalpindi

University of the Punjab

University of Agriculture, Faisalabad

King Edward Medical University, Lahore

• Allama Iqbal Medical College, Lahore
• Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan
• COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Lahore
• COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Sahiwal
• Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi
• Ghazi University D.G.Khan, D.G.Khan
• Government College University, Lahore
• Government College University, Faisalabad
• Gujranwala Medical College, Gujranwala
• Khawaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology, Rahim Yar Khan
• King Edward Medical College, Lahore
• Kinnaird College for Women, Lahore
• Lahore College for Women University, Lahore
• Muhammad Nawaz Sharif University of Agriculture, Multan
• Muhammad Nawaz Sharif University of Engineering & Technology, Multan
• National College of Arts, Lahore
• National Textile University, Faisalabad
• NFC Institute of Engineering and Technology, Multan
• Nishtar Medical College, Multan
• Sargodha Medical College, Sargodha
• Rawalpindi Women University
• The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur
• University College of Agriculture, Sargodha
• University of Agriculture, Faisalabad
• University of Arid Agriculture, Rawalpindi
• University of Education, Lahore
• University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore
• University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila
• University of Gujrat, Gujrat
• University of Health Sciences, Lahore
• University of Sahiwal
• University of Sargodha, Sargodha
• University of the Punjab, Lahore
• University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore
• Virtual University of Pakistan, Lahore
• Women University Multan, Multan

• Beaconhouse National University, Lahore
• Forman Christian College, Lahore
• GIFT University, Gujranwala
• Hajvery University, Lahore
• Imperial College of Business Studies, Lahore
• Institute of Management Sciences, Lahore, Pak-AIMS, Lahore
• Lahore School of Economics, Lahore
• Lahore University of Management Sciences, Lahore
• Minhaj International University, Lahore
• National University of Computer & Emerging Sciences, Lahore
• Pakistan Institute of Fashion and Design, Lahore
• Sargodha Institute of Technology, Sargodha
• University of Central Punjab, Lahore
• University of Chenab, Gujrat
• University of Faisalabad, Faisalabad
• University of Health Sciences, Lahore
• University of Lahore, Lahore
• University of Management and Technology, Lahore
• University of South Asia, Lahore
• University College Lahore, Lahore
• University of Wah, Wah Cantonment
• HITEC University, Taxila Cantonment
• Institute of Southern Punjab, Multan
• Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Technology, Multan
• Multan Medical and Dental College, Multan
• Lahore Garrison University, Lahore[137]

The Islamic festivals are typically observed.[138][139] Non-Islamic festivals include Lohri, Basant and Vaisakhi, which are usually celebrated as seasonal festivals.[140] The Islamic festivals are set according to the lunar Islamic calendar (Hijri), and the date falls earlier by 10 to 13 days from year to year.[141]

Some Islamic clerics and some politicians have attempted to ban the participation of non-Islamic festivals because of the religious basis,[142] and they being declared haram (forbidden in Islam).[143]