Taiko

Haniwa figures, dated to the 6th century CE. The left and right depict two drum performers. The statue on the left, depicted using a stick on a barrel-shaped drum, represents the earliest evidence of taiko usage in Japan.

The origin of the taiko and its variants is unclear, though there have been many suggestions. Historical accounts, of which the earliest date from 588 CE, note that young Japanese men traveled to Korea to study the kakko, a drum that originated in South China. This study and appropriation of Chinese instruments may have influenced the emergence of taiko.[1] Certain court music styles, especially gigaku and gagaku, arrived in Japan through both China and Korea.[2][3] In both traditions, dancers were accompanied by several instruments that included drums similar to taiko.[3][4] Certain percussive patterns and terminology in togaku, an early dance and music style in Japan, in addition to physical features of the kakko, also reflect influence from both China and India on drum use in gagaku performance.[5][6]

Archaeological evidence shows that taiko were used in Japan as early as the 6th century CE,[7] during the latter part of the Kofun period, and were likely used for communication, in festivals, and in other rituals.[8] This evidence was substantiated by the discovery of haniwa statues in the Sawa District of Gunma Prefecture. Two of these figures are depicted playing drums;[8] one of them, wearing skins, is equipped with a barrel-shaped drum hung from his shoulder and uses a stick to play the drum at hip height.[9][10] This statue is titled "Man Beating the Taiko" and is considered the oldest evidence of taiko performance in Japan.[10][11] Similarities between the playing style demonstrated by this haniwa and known music traditions in China and Korea further suggest influences from these regions.[11]

The Nihon Shoki, the second-oldest book of Japanese classical history, contains a mythological story describing the origin of taiko. The myth tells how Amaterasu, who had sealed herself inside a cave in anger, was beckoned out by an elder goddess Ame-no-Uzume when others had failed. Ame-no-Uzume accomplished this by emptying out a barrel of sake and dancing furiously on top of it. Historians regard her performance as the mythological creation of taiko music.[12]

Hand-colored print of a woman playing a shime-daiko, circa 1885

In feudal Japan, taiko were often used to motivate troops, call out orders or announcements, and set a marching pace; marches were usually set to six paces per beat of the drum.[13][14] During the 16th-century Warring States period, specific drum calls were used to communicate orders for retreating and advancing.[15] Other rhythms and techniques were detailed in period texts. According to the war chronicle Gunji Yoshū, nine sets of five beats would summon an ally to battle, while nine sets of three beats, sped up three or four times, was the call to advance and pursue an enemy.[16] Folklore from the 16th century on the legendary 6th-century Emperor Keitai offers a story that he obtained a large drum from China, which he named Senjin-daiko (線陣太鼓, "front drum").[17] The Emperor was thought to have used it to both encourage his own army and intimidate his enemies.[17]

Taiko have been incorporated in Japanese theatre for rhythmic needs, general atmosphere, and in certain settings decoration. In the kabuki play The Tale of Shiroishi and the Taihei Chronicles, scenes in the pleasure quarters are accompanied by taiko to create dramatic tension.[18] Noh theatre also features taiko music,[19][20] where performance consists of highly specific rhythmic patterns. The Konparu (金春流) school of drumming, for example, contains 65 basic patterns in addition to 25 special patterns; these patterns are categorized in several classes.[21] Differences between these patterns include changes in tempo, accent, dynamics, pitch, and function in the theatrical performance. Patterns are also often connected together in progressions.[21]

Taiko continue to be used in gagaku, a classical music tradition typically performed at the Tokyo Imperial Palace in addition to local temples and shrines.[22] In gagaku, one component of the art form is traditional dance, which is guided in part by the rhythm set by the taiko.[23]

Taiko have played an important role in many local festivals across Japan.[24] They are also used to accompany religious ritual music. In kagura, a category of music and dances stemming from Shinto practices, taiko frequently appear alongside other performers during local festivals. In Buddhist traditions, taiko are used for ritual dances as part of the Bon Festival.[25][26] Taiko, along with other instruments, are featured atop towers that are adorned with red-and-white cloth and serve to provide rhythms for the dancers who are encircled around the performers.[27]

A kumi-daiko group performing in Aichi, Japan wearing hachimaki

In addition to the instruments, the term taiko also refers to the performance itself,[28][29] and commonly to one style called kumi-daiko, or ensemble-style playing (as opposed to festival performances, rituals, or theatrical use of the drums).[30][31] Kumi-daiko was developed by Daihachi Oguchi in 1951.[30][32] He is considered a master performer and helped transform taiko performance from its roots in traditional settings in festivals and shrines.[33] Oguchi was trained as a jazz musician in Nagano, and at one point, a relative gave him an old piece of written taiko music.[34] Unable to read the traditional and esoteric notation,[34] Oguchi found help to transcribe the piece, and on his own added rhythms and transformed the work to accommodate multiple taiko players on different-sized instruments.[35] Each instrument served a specific purpose that established present-day conventions in kumi-daiko performance.[36][37]

Oguchi's ensemble, Osuwa Daiko, incorporated these alterations and other drums into their performances. They also devised novel pieces that were intended for non-religious performances.[34] Several other groups emerged in Japan through the 1950s and 1960s. Oedo Sukeroku Daiko was formed in Tokyo in 1959 under Seidō Kobayashi,[38] and has been referred to as the first taiko group who toured professionally.[39] Globally, kumi-daiko performance became more visible during the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, when it was featured during the Festival of Arts event.[40]

Kumi-daiko was also developed through the leadership of Den Tagayasu (田耕), who gathered young men who were willing to devote their entire lifestyle to taiko playing and took them to Sado Island for training[36][41] where Den and his family had settled in 1968.[42] Den chose the island based on a desire to reinvigorate the folk arts in Japan, particularly taiko; he became inspired by a drumming tradition unique to Sado called ondeko (鬼太鼓, "demon drumming" in the Sado dialect) that required considerable strength to play well.[43] Den called the group "Za Ondekoza" or Ondekoza for short, and implemented a rigorous set of exercises for its members including long-distance running.[35][41] In 1975, Ondekoza was the first taiko group to tour in the United States. Their first performance occurred just after the group finished running the Boston Marathon while wearing their traditional uniforms.[44][45] In 1981, some members of Ondekoza split from Den and formed another group called Kodo under the leadership of Eitetsu Hayashi.[46] Kodo continued to use Sado Island for rigorous training and communal living, and went on to popularize taiko through frequent touring and collaborations with other musical performers.[47] Kodo is one of the most recognized taiko groups both in Japan[48][49] and worldwide.[50][51]

Estimates of the number of taiko groups in Japan vary to up to 5,000 active groups in Japan,[52] but more conservative assessments place the number closer to 800 based on membership in the Nippon Taiko Foundation, the largest national organization of taiko groups.[53] Some pieces that have emerged from early kumi-daiko groups that continue to be performed include Yatai-bayashi from Ondekoza,[54] Isami-goma (勇み駒, lit. "galloping horse") from Osuwa Daiko,[55] and Zoku (族, lit. "tribe") from Kodo.[56]

Taiko construction has several stages, including making and shaping of the drum body (or shell), preparing the drum skin, and tuning the skin to the drumhead. Variations in the construction process often occur in the latter two parts of this process.[100] Historically, byō-uchi-daiko were crafted from trunks of the Japanese zelkova tree that were dried out over years, using techniques to prevent splitting. A master carpenter then carved out the rough shape of the drum body with a chisel; the texture of the wood after carving softened the tone of the drum.[100][101] In contemporary times, taiko are carved out on a large lathe using wood staves[66] or logs that can be shaped to fit drum bodies of various sizes.[102] Drumheads can be left to air-dry over a period of years,[103] but some companies use large, smoke-filled warehouses to hasten the drying process.[101] After drying is complete, the inside of the drum is worked with a deep-grooved chisel and sanded.[103] Lastly, handles are placed onto the drum. These are used to carry smaller drums and they serve an ornamental purpose for larger drums.[104]

Taiko drum manufacturing display in the Osaka Human Rights Museum

The skins or heads of taiko are generally made from cowhide from Holstein cows aged about three or four years. Skins also come from horses, and bull skin is preferred for larger drums.[21][100] Thinner skins are preferred for smaller taiko, and thicker skins are used for larger ones.[105] On some drumheads, a patch of deer skin placed in the center serves as the target for many strokes during performance.[21] Before fitting it to the drum body the hair is removed from the hide by soaking it in a river or stream for about a month; winter months are preferred as colder temperatures better facilitate hair removal.[104] To stretch the skin over the drum properly, one process requires the body to be held on a platform with several hydraulic jacks underneath it. The edges of the cowhide are secured to an apparatus below the jacks, and the jacks stretch the skin incrementally to precisely apply tension across the drumhead.[106] Other forms of stretching use rope or cords with wooden dowels or an iron wheel to create appropriate tension.[104][107] Small tension adjustments can be made during this process using small pieces of bamboo that twist around the ropes.[104] Particularly large drumheads are sometimes stretched by having several workers, clad in stockings, hop rhythmically atop it, forming a circle along the edge. After the skin has dried, tacks, called byō, are added to the appropriate drums to secure it; chū-daiko require about 300 of them for each side.[108] After the body and skin have been finished, excess hide is cut off and the drum can be stained as needed.[108]

Several companies specialize in the production of taiko. One such company that created drums exclusively for the Emperor of Japan, Miyamoto Unosuke Shoten in Tokyo, has been making taiko since 1861.[100] The Asano Taiko Corporation is another major taiko-producing organization, and has been producing taiko for over 400 years.[109][110] The family-owned business started in Mattō, Ishikawa, and, aside from military equipment, made taiko for Noh theater and later expanded to creating instruments for festivals during the Meiji period. Asano currently maintains an entire complex of large buildings referred to as Asano Taiko Village,[109] and the company reports producing up to 8000 drums each year.[111] As of 2012, there is approximately one major taiko production company in each prefecture of Japan, with some regions having several companies.[112] Of the manufacturers in Naniwa, Taikoya Matabē is one of the most successful and is thought to have brought considerable recognition to the community and attracted many drum makers there.[113] Umetsu Daiko, a company that operates in Hakata, has been producing taiko since 1821.[103]

Kata is the posture and movement associated with taiko performance.[31][116] The notion is similar to that of kata in martial arts: for example, both traditions include the idea that the hara is the center of being.[31][117] Author Shawn Bender argues that kata is the primary feature that distinguishes different taiko groups from one another and is a key factor in judging the quality of performance.[118] For this reason, many practice rooms intended for taiko contain mirrors to provide visual feedback to players.[119] An important part of kata in taiko is keeping the body stabilized while performing and can be accomplished by keeping a wide, low stance with the legs, with the left knee bent over the toes and keeping the right leg straight.[31][120] It is important that the hips face the drum and the shoulders are relaxed.[120] Some teachers note a tendency to rely on the upper body while playing and emphasize the importance of the holistic use of the body during performance.[121]

Some groups in Japan, particularly those active in Tokyo, also emphasize the importance of the lively and spirited iki aesthetic.[122] In taiko, it refers to very specific kinds of movement while performing that evoke the sophistication stemming from the mercantile and artisan classes active during the Edo period (1603–1868).[122]

Bachi are sticks used specifically for taiko performance, and can be slightly thicker than typical drum sticks.

The sticks for playing taiko are called bachi, and are made in various sizes and from different kinds of wood such as white oak, bamboo, and Japanese magnolia.[123] Bachi are also held in a number of different styles.[124] In kumi-daiko, it is common for a player to hold their sticks in a relaxed manner between the V-shape of the index finger and thumb, which points to the player.[124] There are other grips that allow performers to play much more technically difficult rhythms, such as the shime grip, which is similar to a matched grip: the bachi are gripped at the back end, and the fulcrum rests between the performer's index finger and thumb, while the other fingers remain relaxed and slightly curled around the stick.[125]

Performance in some groups is also guided by principles based on Zen Buddhism. For instance, among other concepts, the San Francisco Taiko Dojo is guided by rei (礼) emphasizing communication, respect, and harmony.[126] The way the bachi are held can also be significant; for some groups, bachi represent a spiritual link between the body and the sky.[127] Some physical parts of taiko, like the drum body, its skin, and the tacks also hold symbolic significance in Buddhism.[127]

Kumi-daiko groups consist primarily of percussive instruments where each of the drums plays a specific role. Of the different kinds of taiko, the most common in groups is the nagadō-daiko.[128] Chū-daiko are common in taiko groups[31] and represent the main rhythm of the group, whereas shime-daiko set and change tempo.[70] A shime-daiko often plays the Jiuchi, a base rhythm holding together the ensemble. Ō-daiko provide a steady, underlying pulse[34] and serve as a counter-rhythm to the other parts.[129] It is common for performances to begin with a single stroke roll called an oroshi (颪, "wind blowing down from mountains").[130] The player starts slowly, leaving considerable space between strikes, gradually shortening the interval between hits, until the drummer is playing a rapid roll of hits.[130] Oroshi are also played as a part of theatrical performance, such as in Noh theater.[21]

Drums are not the only instruments played in the ensemble; other Japanese instruments are also used. Other kinds of percussion instruments include the atarigane (当り鉦), a hand-sized gong played with a small mallet.[131] In kabuki, the shamisen, a plucked string instrument, often accompanies taiko during the theatrical performance.[132] Kumi-daiko performances can also feature woodwinds such as the shakuhachi[133] and the shinobue.[134][135]

Voiced calls or shouts called kakegoe and kiai are also common in taiko performance.[136][137] They are used as encouragement to other players or cues for transition or change in dynamics such as an increase in tempo.[138] In contrast, the philosophical concept of ma, or the space between drum strikes, is also important in shaping rhythmic phrases and creating appropriate contrast.[139]

There is a wide variety of traditional clothing that players wear during taiko performance. Common in many kumi-daiko groups is the use of the happi, a decorative, thin-fabric coat, and traditional headbands called hachimaki.[140] Tabi, momohiki (もも引き, "loose-fitting pants"), and haragake (腹掛け, "working aprons") are also typical.[141] During his time with the group Ondekoza, Eitetsu Hayashi suggested that a loincloth called a fundoshi be worn when performing for French fashion designer Pierre Cardin, who saw Ondekoza perform for him in 1975.[142] The Japanese group Kodo has sometimes worn fundoshi for its performances.[143]

Eisa are folk dances from Okinawa that involve the use of taiko while dancing.

A variety of folk dances originating from Okinawa, known collectively as eisa, often make use of the taiko.[158] Some performers use drums while dancing, and generally speaking, perform in one of two styles:[159] groups on the Yokatsu Peninsula and on Hamahiga Island use small, single-sided drums called pāranku (パーランク) whereas groups near the city of Okinawa generally use shime-daiko.[158][160] Use of shime-daiko over pāranku has spread throughout the island, and is considered the dominant style.[160] Small nagadō-daiko, referred to as ō-daiko within the tradition, are also used[161] and are worn in front of the performer.[162] These drum dances are not limited to Okinawa and have appeared in places containing Okinawan communities such as in São Paulo, Hawaii, and large cities on the Japanese mainland.[163]

Hachijō-daiko is a music tradition involving two players on a single drum.

Hachijō-daiko (八丈太鼓, trans. "Hachijō-style taiko") is a taiko tradition originating on the island of Hachijō-jima.[164] Two styles of Hachijō-daiko emerged and have been popularized among residents: an older tradition based on a historical account, and a newer tradition influenced by mainland groups and practiced by the majority of the islanders.[164]

The Hachijō-daiko tradition was documented as early as 1849 based on a journal kept by an exile named Kakuso Kizan. He mentioned some of its unique features, such as "a taiko is suspended from a tree while women and children gathered around", and observed that a player used either side of the drum while performing.[165] Illustrations from Kizan's journal show features of Hachijō-daiko. These illustrations also featured women performing, which is unusual as taiko performance elsewhere during this period was typically reserved for men. Teachers of the tradition have noted that the majority of its performers were women; one estimate asserts that female performers outnumbered males by three to one.[166]

The first style of Hachijō-daiko is thought to descend directly from the style reported by Kizan. This style is called Kumaoji-daiko, named after its creator Okuyama Kumaoji, a central performer of the style.[167] Kumaoji-daiko has two players on a single drum, one of whom, called the shita-byōshi (下拍子, "lower beat"), provides the underlying beat.[168] The other player, called the uwa-byōshi (上拍子, "upper beat"), builds on this rhythmical foundation with unique and typically improvised rhythms.[168][169] While there are specific types of underlying rhythms, the accompanying player is free to express an original musical beat.[168] Kumaoji-daiko also features an unusual positioning for taiko: the drums are sometimes suspended from ropes,[170] and historically, sometimes drums were suspended from trees.[165]

The contemporary style of Hachijō-daiko is called shin-daiko (新太鼓, "new taiko"), which differs from Kumaoji-daiko in multiple ways. For instance, while the lead and accompanying roles are still present, shin-daiko performances use larger drums exclusively on stands.[171] Shin-daiko emphasizes a more powerful sound, and consequently, performers use larger bachi made out of stronger wood.[172] Looser clothing is worn by shin-daiko performers compared to kimono worn by Kumaoji-daiko performers; the looser clothing in shin-daiko allow performers to adopt more open stances and larger movements with the legs and arms.[173] Rhythms used for the accompanying shita-byōshi role can also differ. One type of rhythm, called yūkichi, consists of the following:

This rhythm is found in both styles, but is always played faster in shin-daiko.[174] Another type of rhythm, called honbadaki, is unique to shin-daiko and also contains a song which is performed in standard Japanese.[174]

Miyake-daiko (三宅太鼓, trans. "Miyake-style taiko") is a style that has spread amongst groups through Kodo, and is formally known as Miyake-jima Kamitsuki mikoshi-daiko (三宅島神着神輿太鼓).[175] The word miyake comes from Miyake-jima, part of the Izu Islands, and the word Kamitsuki refers to the village where the tradition came from. Miyake-style taiko came out of performances for Gozu Tennō Sai (牛頭天王祭, "Gozu Tennō Festival")— a traditional festival held annually in July on Miyake Island since 1820 honoring the deity Gozu Tennō.[176] In this festival, players perform on taiko while portable shrines are carried around town.[177] The style itself is characterized in a number of ways. A nagadō-daiko is typically set low to the ground and played by two performers, one on each side; instead of sitting, performers stand and hold a stance that is also very low to the ground, almost to the point of kneeling.[177][178]

Taiko groups in Australia began forming in the 1990s.[179] The first group, called Ataru Taru Taiko, was formed in 1995 by Paulene Thomas, Harold Gent, and Kaomori Kamei.[180] TaikOz was later formed by percussionist Ian Cleworth and Riley Lee, a former Ondekoza member, and has been performing in Australia since 1997.[181] They are known for their work in generating interest in performing taiko among Australian audiences, such as by developing a complete education program with both formal and informal classes,[182] and have a strong fan base.[183] Cleworth and other members of the group have developed several original pieces.[184]

Performance of the composition "Zero" by Brazilian group Seiryu Daiko in Fukuoka, Japan

The introduction of kumi-daiko performance in Brazil can be traced back to the 1970s and 1980s in São Paulo.[185] Tangue Setsuko founded an eponymous taiko dojo and was Brazil's first taiko group;[185] Setsuo Kinoshita later formed the group Wadaiko Sho.[186] Brazilian groups have combined native and African drumming techniques with taiko performance. One such piece developed by Kinoshita is called Taiko de Samba, which emphasizes both Brazilian and Japanese aesthetics in percussion traditions.[187] Taiko was also popularized in Brazil from 2002 through the work of Yukihisa Oda, a Japanese native who visited Brazil several times through the Japan International Cooperation Agency.[188]

The Brazilian Association of Taiko (ABT) suggests that there are about 150 taiko groups in Brazil and that about 10–15% of players are non-Japanese; Izumo Honda, coordinator of a large annual festival in São Paulo, estimated that about 60% of all taiko performers in Brazil are women.[188]

New York-based group Soh Daiko was one of the earlier kumi-daiko groups to form in the eastern United States.

Taiko emerged in the United States in the late 1960s. The first group, San Francisco Taiko Dojo, was formed in 1968 by Seiichi Tanaka, a postwar immigrant who studied taiko in Japan and brought the styles and teachings to the US.[189][190] A year later, a few members of Senshin Buddhist Temple in Los Angeles led by its minister Masao Kodani initiated another group called Kinnara Taiko.[191] San Jose Taiko later formed in 1973 in Japantown, San Jose, under Roy and PJ Hirabayashi.[192][193] Taiko started to branch out to the eastern US in the late 1970s.[194] This included formation of Denver Taiko in 1976,[194] and Soh Daiko in New York City in 1979.[195][196] Many of these early groups lacked the resources to equip each member with a drum and resorted to makeshift percussion materials such as rubber tires or creating taiko out of wine barrels.[194]

Japanese-Canadian taiko began in 1979 with Katari Taiko, and was inspired by the San Jose Taiko group.[197][198] Its early membership was predominantly female.[199] Katari Taiko and future groups were thought to represent an opportunity for younger, third-generation Japanese Canadians to explore their roots, redevelop a sense of ethnic community, and expand taiko into other musical traditions.[200]

There are no official counts or estimates of the number of active taiko groups in the United States or Canada, as there is no governing body for taiko groups in either country. Unofficial estimates have been made. In 1989, there were as many as 30 groups in the US and Canada, seven of which were in California.[201] One estimate suggested that around 120 groups were active in the US and Canada as of 2001, many of which could be traced to the San Francisco Taiko Dojo;[68] later estimates in 2005 and 2006 suggested there were about 200 groups in the United States alone.[52][193]

The Cirque du Soleil shows Mystère in Las Vegas[202] and Dralion have featured taiko performance.[203][204] Taiko performance has also been featured in commercial productions such as the 2005 Mitsubishi Eclipse ad campaign,[205] and in events such as the 2009 Academy Awards and 2011 Grammy Awards.[206]

From 2005 to 2006, the Japanese American National Museum held an exhibition called Big Drum: Taiko in the United States.[207] The exhibition covered several topics related to taiko in the United States, such as the formation of performance groups, their construction using available materials, and social movements. Visitors were able to play smaller drums.[208]

The first group, called Quelli del Taiko, was formed in 2000 by Pietro Notarnicola. They played in World Premiere - 2017 - "On Western Terror 8" - Concerto for Taiko Ensemble and Orchestra of the Italian composed Luigi Morleo

Taiko performance has frequently been viewed as an art form dominated by men.[209][210] Historians of taiko argue that its performance comes from masculine traditions. Those who developed ensemble-style taiko in Japan were men,[210] and through the influence of Ondekoza, the ideal taiko player was epitomized in images of the masculine peasant class,[210] particularly through the character Muhōmatsu in the 1958 film Rickshaw Man.[140][210] Masculine roots have also been attributed to perceived capacity for "spectacular bodily performance" [211] where women's bodies are sometimes judged as unable to meet the physical demands of playing.[212]

Starting in the 1990s, there have been a greater or equal number of female performers in kumi-daiko compared to male performers.

Before the 1980s, it was uncommon for Japanese women to perform on traditional instruments, including taiko, as their participation had been systematically restricted; an exception was the San Francisco Taiko Dojo under the guidance of Grand master Seiichi Tanaka, who was the first to admit females to the art form.[210] In Ondekoza and in the early performances of Kodo, women performed only dance routines either during or between taiko performances.[213] Thereafter, female participation in kumi-daiko started to rise dramatically, and by the 1990s, women equaled and possibly exceeded representation by men.[210] While the proportion of women in taiko has become substantial, some have expressed concern that women still do not perform in the same roles as their male counterparts and that taiko performance continues to be a male-dominated profession.[212] For instance, a member of Kodo was informed by the director of the group's apprentice program that women were permitted to play, but could only play "as women".[214] Other women in the apprentice program recognized a gender disparity in performance roles, such as what pieces they were allowed to perform, or in physical terms based on a male standard.[215]

Female taiko performance has also served as a response to gendered stereotypes of Japanese women as being quiet,[200] subservient, or a femme fatale.[216] Through performance, some groups believe they are helping to redefine not only the role of women in taiko, but how women are perceived more generally.[216][217]

Those involved in the construction of taiko are usually considered part of the burakumin, a marginalized minority class in Japanese society, particularly those working with leather or animal skins.[105] Prejudice against this class dates back to the Tokugawa period in terms of legal discrimination and treatment as social outcasts.[218] Although official discrimination ended with the Tokugawa era, the burakumin have continued to face social discrimination, such as scrutiny by employers or in marriage arrangements.[219] Drum makers have used their trade and success as a means to advocate for an end to discriminatory practices against their class.[218]

The Taiko Road (人権太鼓ロード, "Taiko Road of Human Rights"), representing the contributions of burakumin, is found in Naniwa Ward in Osaka, home to a large proportion of burakumin.[112] Among other features, the road contains taiko-shaped benches representing their traditions in taiko manufacturing and leatherworking, and their influence on national culture.[113][219] The road ends at the Osaka Human Rights Museum, which exhibits the history of systematic discrimination against the burakumin.[219] The road and museum were developed in part due an advocacy campaign led by the Buraku Liberation League and a taiko group of younger performers called Taiko Ikari (太鼓怒り, "taiko rage").[112]

Taiko performance was an important part of cultural development by third-generation Japanese residents in North America, who are called sansei.[193][220] During World War II, second-generation Japanese residents, called nisei faced internment in the United States and in Canada on the basis of their race.[221][222] During and after the war, Japanese residents were discouraged from activities such as speaking Japanese or forming ethnic communities.[222] Subsequently, sansei could not engage in Japanese culture and instead were raised to assimilate into more normative activities.[223] There were also prevailing stereotypes of Japanese people, which sansei sought to escape or subvert.[223] During the 1960s in the United States, the civil rights movement influenced sansei to reexamine their heritage by engaging in Japanese culture in their communities; one such approach was through taiko performance.[222][223] Groups such as San Jose Taiko were organized to fulfill a need for solidarity and to have a medium to express their experiences as Japanese-Americans.[224] Later generations have adopted taiko in programs or workshops established by sansei; social scientist Hideyo Konagaya remarks that this attraction to taiko among other Japanese art forms may be due to its accessibility and energetic nature.[225] Konagaya has also argued that the resurgence of taiko in the United States and Japan are differently motivated: in Japan, performance was meant to represent the need to recapture sacred traditions, while in the United States it was meant to be an explicit representation of masculinity and power in Japanese-American men.[226]