Track gauge

The earliest form of railway was a wooden wagonway, along which single wagons were manhandled, almost always in or from a mine or quarry. Initially the wagons were guided by human muscle power; subsequently by various mechanical methods. Timber rails wore rapidly: later, flat cast-iron plates were provided to limit the wear. In some localities, the plates were made L-shaped, with the vertical part of the L guiding the wheels; this is generally referred to as a "plateway". Flanged wheels eventually became universal, and the spacing between the rails had to be compatible with that of the wagon wheels.[3]

As the guidance of the wagons was improved, short strings of wagons could be connected and pulled by teams of horses, and the track could be extended from the immediate vicinity of the mine or quarry, typically to a navigable waterway. The wagons were built to a consistent pattern and the track would be made to suit the needs of the horses and wagons: the gauge was more critical. The Penydarren Tramroad of 1802 in South Wales, a plateway, spaced these at 4 ft 4 in (1,321 mm) over the outside of the upstands.[4]

Fish-belly cast-iron rails from the Cromford and High Peak Railway

The Penydarren Tramroad probably carried the first journey by a locomotive, in 1804, and it was successful for the locomotive, but unsuccessful for the track: the plates were not strong enough to carry its weight. A considerable progressive step was made when cast iron edge rails were first employed; these had the major axis of the rail section configured vertically, giving a much stronger section to resist bending forces, and this was further improved when fish-belly rails were introduced.[5]

Edge rails required a close match between rail spacing and the configuration of the wheelsets, and the importance of the gauge was reinforced. Railways were still seen as local concerns: there was no appreciation of a future connection to other lines, and selection of the track gauge was still a pragmatic decision based on local requirements and prejudices, and probably determined by existing local designs of (road) vehicles.

Thus, the Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway (1826) in the West of Scotland used 4 ft 6 in (1,372 mm);[6] the Dundee and Newtyle Railway (1831) in the north-east of Scotland adopted 4 ft 6+1⁄2 in (1,384 mm);[7] the Redruth and Chasewater Railway (1825) in Cornwall chose 4 ft (1,219 mm).[8]

The Arbroath and Forfar Railway opened in 1838 with a gauge of 5 ft 6 in (1,676 mm),[9] and the Ulster Railway of 1839 used 6 ft 2 in (1,880 mm).[9]

An early Stephenson locomotive

Locomotives were being developed in the first decades of the 19th century; they took various forms, but George Stephenson developed a successful locomotive on the Killingworth Wagonway, where he worked. His designs were so successful that they became the standard, and when the Stockton and Darlington Railway was opened in 1825, it used his locomotives, with the same gauge as the Killingworth line, 4 ft 8 in (1,422 mm).[10][11]

The Stockton and Darlington line was immensely successful, and when the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, the first intercity line, was built (it opened in 1830), it used the same gauge. It was also hugely successful, and the gauge (now eased to 4 ft 8+1⁄2 in or 1,435 mm[10]), became the automatic choice: "standard gauge".

The Liverpool and Manchester was quickly followed by other trunk railways, with the Grand Junction Railway and the London and Birmingham Railway forming a huge critical mass of standard gauge. When Bristol promoters planned a line from London, they employed the innovative engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel. He decided on a wider gauge, to give greater stability, and the Great Western Railway adopted a gauge of 7 ft (2,134 mm), later eased to 7 ft 1⁄4 in (2,140 mm). This became known as broad gauge. The Great Western Railway (GWR) was successful and was greatly expanded, directly and through friendly associated companies, widening the scope of broad gauge.

At the same time, other parts of Britain built railways to standard gauge, and British technology was exported to European countries and parts of North America, also using standard gauge. Britain polarised into two areas: those that used broad gauge and those that used standard gauge. In this context, standard gauge was referred to as "narrow gauge" to indicate the contrast. Some smaller concerns selected other non-standard gauges: the Eastern Counties Railway adopted 5 ft (1,524 mm). Most of them converted to standard gauge at an early date, but the GWR's broad gauge continued to grow.

The larger railway companies wished to expand geographically, and large areas were considered to be under their control. When a new independent line was proposed to open up an unconnected area, the gauge was crucial in determining the allegiance that the line would adopt: if it was broad gauge, it must be friendly to the Great Western railway; if narrow (standard) gauge, it must favour the other companies. The battle to persuade or coerce that choice became very intense, and became referred to as "the gauge wars".

As passenger and freight transport between the two areas became increasingly important, the difficulty of moving from one gauge to the other—the break of gauge—became more prominent and more objectionable. In 1845 a Royal Commission on Railway Gauges was created to look into the growing problem, and this led to the Regulating the Gauge of Railways Act 1846,[12] which forbade the construction of broad gauge lines unconnected with the broad gauge network. The broad gauge network was eventually converted—a progressive process completed in 1892, called gauge conversion. The same Act mandated the gauge of 5 ft 3 in (1,600 mm) for use in Ireland.

Map of the world's railways showing the different gauges in use. Black is standard gauge, Red is Russian gauge, Yellow is India gauge, Orange, between standard and Russian, Blue and purple, narrow gauge. (See map inset for details.)

Triple gauge, from left: 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in), 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in), and 600 mm (1 ft 11+5⁄8 in), on display at the China Railway Museum in Beijing

As railways were built in other countries, the gauge selection was pragmatic: the track would have to fit the rolling stock. If locomotives were imported from elsewhere, especially in the early days, the track would be built to fit them. In some cases standard gauge was adopted, but many countries or companies chose a different gauge as their national gauge, either by governmental policy, or as a matter of individual choice.[13]

In modern usage the term "standard gauge" refers to 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in). Standard gauge is dominant in a majority of countries, including those in North America, most of western Europe, North Africa and the Middle east, and in China.

In modern usage, the term "broad gauge" generally refers to track spaced significantly wider than 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in).

Broad gauge is the dominant gauge in countries in Indian subcontinent, the former Soviet Union (CIS states, Baltic states, Georgia and Ukraine), Mongolia and Finland, Spain, Portugal, Argentina, Chile and Ireland. It is also use for the suburban railway systems in South Australia, and Victoria, Australia.

The term "medium gauge" had different meanings throughout history, depending on the local dominant gauge in use.

In 1840s, the 1,600 mm (5 ft 3 in) Irish gauge was considered a medium gauge compared to Brunel's 7 ft 1⁄4 in (2,140 mm) broad gauge and the 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) narrow gauge, nowadays being standard gauge.[14]

In modern usage, the term "narrow gauge" generally refers to track spaced significantly narrower than 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in).

Narrow gauge is the dominant or second dominant gauge in countries of Southern, Central Africa, East Africa, Southeast Asia, Japan, Taiwan, Philippines, Central America and South America,

During the period known as "the Battle of the gauges", Stephenson's standard gauge was commonly known as "narrow gauge", while Brunel's railway's 7 ft 1⁄4 in (2,140 mm) gauge was termed "broad gauge". Many narrow gauge railways were built in mountainous regions such as Wales, the Rocky Mountains of North America, Central Europe and South America. Industrial railways and mine railways across the world are often narrow gauge. Sugar cane and banana plantations are mostly served by narrow gauges.

Very narrow gauges of under 2 feet (610 mm) were used for some industrial railways in space-restricted environments such as mines or farms. The French company Decauville developed 500 mm (19+3⁄4 in) and 400 mm (15+3⁄4 in) tracks, mainly for mines; Heywood developed 15 in (381 mm) gauge for estate railways. The most common minimum-gauges were 15 in (381 mm),[15] 400 mm (15+3⁄4 in), 16 in (406 mm), 18 in (457 mm), 500 mm (19+3⁄4 in) or 20 in (508 mm).

A cartoon depicting the horrors of goods transfer at the break of gauge at Gloucester in 1843

Through operation between railway networks with different gauges was originally impossible; goods had to be transshipped and passengers had to change trains. This was obviously a major obstacle to convenient transport, and in Great Britain, led to political intervention.

On narrow gauge lines, Rollbocks or transporter wagons are used: standard gauge wagons are carried on narrow gauge lines on these special vehicles, generally with rails of the wider gauge to enable those vehicles to roll on and off at transfer points.

On the Transmongolian Railway, Russia and Mongolia use 1,520 mm (4 ft 11+27⁄32 in) while China uses the standard gauge of 1,435 mm. At the border, each carriage is lifted and its bogies are changed. The operation can take several hours for a whole train of many carriages.

Other examples include crossings into or out of the former Soviet Union: Ukraine/Slovakia border on the Bratislava–L'viv train, and the Romania/Moldova border on the Chișinău-Bucharest train.[16]

A system developed by Talgo and Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles (CAF) of Spain uses variable gauge wheelsets; at the border between France and Spain, through passenger trains are drawn slowly through apparatus that alters the gauge of the wheels, which slide laterally on the axles.[17]

A similar system is used between China and Central Asia, and between Poland and Ukraine, using the SUW 2000 and INTERGAUGE variable axle systems.[18] China and Poland use standard gauge, while Central Asia and Ukraine use 1,520 mm (4 ft 11+27⁄32 in).

Cross-section of triple-gauge track at Gladstone and Peterborough, South Australia, before gauge standardisation in 1970 (click to enlarge)

Mixed gauge track at Sassari, Sardinia: 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) standard gauge and 950 mm (3 ft 1+3⁄8 in)

When individual railway companies have chosen different gauges and have needed to share a route where space on the ground is limited, mixed gauge (or dual gauge) track, in which three (sometimes four) rails are supported in the same track structure, can be necessary. The most frequent need for such track was at the approaches to city terminals or at break-of-gauge stations.

Tracks of multiple gauges involve considerable costs in construction (including signalling work) and complexities in track maintenance, and may require some speed restrictions. They are therefore built only when absolutely necessary. If the difference between the two gauges is large enough – for example between 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) standard gauge and 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) – three-rail dual-gauge is possible, but if not – for example between 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) and 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) metre gauge – four rails must be used. Dual-gauge rail lines occur (or have occurred) in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Japan, North Korea, Spain, Switzerland, Tunisia and Vietnam.

Reconstructed mixed-gauge, 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) standard gauge / 7 ft 1⁄4 in (2,140 mm) track at Didcot Railway Museum, England

On the GWR, there was an extended period between political intervention in 1846 that prevented major expansion of its 7 ft 1⁄4 in (2,140 mm) broad gauge[note 1] and the final gauge conversion to standard gauge in 1892. During this period, many locations practicality required mixed gauge operation, and in station areas the track configuration was extremely complex. This was compounded by the common rail having to be at the platform side in stations; therefore, in many cases, standard-gauge trains needed to be switched from one side of the track to the other at the approach. A special fixed point arrangement was devised for the purpose, where the track layout was simple enough.[note 2]

In some cases, mixed gauge trains were operated with wagons of both gauges. For example, MacDermot[19] wrote:

In November 1871 a novelty in the shape of a mixed-gauge goods train was introduced between Truro and Penzance. It was worked by a narrow-gauge engine, and behind the narrow-gauge trucks came a broad-gauge match-truck with wide buffers and sliding shackles, followed by the broad-gauge trucks. Such trains continued to run in West Cornwall until the abolition of the Broad Gauge; they had to stop or come down to walking pace at all stations where fixed points existed and the narrow portion side-stepped to right or left.

Narrower gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are usually lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives (smaller loading gauge), as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels (smaller structure gauge).[25] Narrow gauge is thus often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. It is also used in sparsely populated areas, with low potential demand, and for temporary railways that will be removed after short-term use, such as for construction, the logging industry, the mining industry, or large-scale construction projects, especially in confined spaces (see Temporary way – permanent way). For temporary railways which will be removed after short-term use, such as those used in logging, mining or large-scale construction projects (especially in confined spaces, such as when constructing the Channel Tunnel), a narrow-gauge railway is substantially cheaper and easier to install and remove. Such railways have almost vanished, however, due to the capabilities of modern trucks. In many countries, narrow-gauge railways were built as branch lines to feed traffic to standard-gauge lines due to lower construction costs. The choice was often not between a narrow- and standard-gauge railway, but between a narrow-gauge railway and none at all.

Broader gauge railways are generally more expensive to build, because they are usually heavier in construction, use larger cars and locomotives (larger loading gauge), as well as larger bridges, larger tunnels (larger structure gauge). But broader gauges offer higher speed and capacity. For routes with high traffic, greater capacity may more than offset the higher initial cost of construction.

The value or utility a user derives from a good or service depends on the number of users of compatible products – the "network effect" in economics. Network effects are typically positive, resulting in a given user deriving more value from a product as other users join the same network.[26] At national levels, the network effect has resulted in commerce extending beyond regional and national boundaries. Increasingly, many governments and companies have made their railways' engineering and operational standards compatible in order to achieve interchangeability – hence faster, longer-distance train operation. A major barrier to achieving interchangeability, however, is path dependence[27] – in this context the persistence of an already adopted standard to which equipment, infrastructure and training has become aligned. Since adopting a new standard is difficult and expensive, continuing with an existing standard can remain attractive unless longer-term benefits are given appropriate weight. An example of the consequences of path dependence is the persistence in the United Kingdom – the earliest nation to develop and adopt railway technologies – of structure gauges that are too small to allow the larger rolling stock of continental Europe to operate in that country. The reduced cost, greater efficiency, and greater economic opportunity offered by the use of a common standard has resulted in the historical multitude of track gauges dwindling to a small number that predominate worldwide.

When interchangeability has not been achieved, freight and passengers must be transferred through time-consuming procedures requiring manual labour and substantial capital expenditure.[28] Some bulk commodities, such as coal, ore, and gravel, can be mechanically transshipped, but even this is time-consuming, and the equipment required for the transfer is often complex to maintain. Further, if rail lines of different gauges coexist in a network and a break of gauge exists, it is difficult in times of peak demand to move rolling stock to where it is needed. Sufficient rolling stock must be available to meet a narrow-gauge railway's peak demand (which might be greater in comparison to a broader-gauge network), and the surplus equipment generates no cash flow during periods of low demand. In regions where narrow-gauge lines form a small part of the rail network (as was the case on Russia's Sakhalin Railway), extra cost is involved in designing, manufacturing or importing narrow-gauge equipment.

Solutions to interchangeability problems include bogie exchanges, a rollbock system, dual gauge, variable gauge, or gauge conversion.

Total for each group of gauges in 2020:

The European Union has set out to develop inter-operable freight and passenger rail networks across its area, and is seeking to standardise gauge, signalling and electrical power systems. EU funds have been dedicated to assist Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia in the building of some key railway lines (Rail Baltica) of standard gauge, and to assist Spain and Portugal in the construction of high-speed lines to connect Iberian cities to one another and to the French high-speed lines. The EU has developed plans for improved freight rail links between Spain, Portugal, and the rest of Europe.

The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) is planning a Trans-Asian Railway that will link Europe and the Pacific, with a Northern Corridor from Europe to the Korean Peninsula, a Southern Corridor from Europe to Southeast Asia, and a North–South corridor from Northern Europe to the Persian Gulf. All these would encounter breaks of gauge as they cross Asia. Current plans have mechanized facilities at the breaks of gauge to move containers from train to train rather than widespread gauge conversion. The Northern Corridor through Russia already operates since before year 2000, with increasing volumes China–Europe.

• 2008: Proposed link between Venezuela and Colombia[32]
• 2008: Venezuela via Brazil to Argentina – standard gauge[33]
• 2008: A proposed metre gauge line across Southern Paraguay to link Argentina at Resistencia to Brazil at Cascavel; both those lines are 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) metre gauge, and the new line would allow "bioceanic" running from the Atlantic port of Paranaguá in Brazil to that of Antofagasta in Chile on the Pacific.

The East African Railway Master Plan is a proposal for rebuilding and expanding railway lines connecting Ethiopia, Djibouti, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, South Sudan and beyond.[34] The plan is managed by infrastructure ministers from participating East African Community countries in association with transport consultation firm CPCS Transcom.[35] Older railways are of 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) metre gauge or 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) gauge. Newly rebuilt lines will use standard gauge. Regular freight and passenger services began on the standard gauge Mombasa–Nairobi railway in 2017 and on the standard gauge Addis Ababa–Djibouti railway in 2018.

Lines for iron ore to Kribi in Cameroon are likely to be 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) standard gauge with a likely connection to the same port from the 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) metre gauge Cameroon system.

Nigeria's railways are mostly 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) Cape gauge. The Lagos–Kano Standard Gauge Railway is a gauge conversion project by the Nigerian Government to create a north–south standard gauge rail link. The first converted segment, between Abuja and Kaduna, was completed in July 2016.

The African Union has a 50-year plan to connect the capital cities and major centres by high-speed railways.