translation

Examples of translation in the following topics:

• Translations

  • A translation of a function is a shift in one or more directions.
  • To translate a function vertically is to shift the function up or down.
  • In general, a vertical translation is given by the equation:
  • Let's use a basic quadratic function to explore vertical translations.
  • Translating the function up the $y$-axis by two produces the equation:

• Regulation of Sigma Factor Translation

  • The regulation of expression of sigma factors occurs at transcriptional, translational, and post-translational levels as dictated by the cellular environment and the presence or absence of numerous cofactors.
  • Specifically, the translational control of the sigma factor is a major level of control.
  • The translational control of sigma factors involves the presence and function of small noncoding RNAs.
  • The small noncoding RNAs are able to specifically increase the amount of rpoS mRNA that undergoes translation.
  • These RNAs can induce activation of rpoS translation.

• The Act of Translating: Hijacking Authority

  • Finally, the fifth variation, $T \rightarrow X + Y$ , refers to the act of translating a thought from one language to another.
  • The authenticity of the translation then becomes of secondary importance at best, and the principal issue becomes: what words, labeled as the results of translation, will be most likely to encourage the people who read them to act in the ways desired by the translator?
  • The most obvious potential for this second kind of translation—translation with a hidden agenda—exists when the words being translated come from a document which people tend to regard as authoritative. * When the document being "translated" is in the same language as that it is translated into, we normally use the term interpret rather than translate, but here too there are abundant opportunities for a hidden agenda. **
  • *The Bible is probably the most obvious target for translations based on a "hidden agenda".
  • **An authoritative document frequently subjected to hidden agenda translations is the US Constitution.

• Cancer and Translational Control

  • There are many examples of translational or post-translational modifications of proteins that arise in cancer.
  • Modifications are found in cancer cells from the increased translation of a protein to changes in protein phosphorylation to alternative splice variants of a protein.

• Translation Manager

  • In software projects, "translation" can refer to two very different things.
  • Part of the reason the translation manager is necessary is that translators are a different demographic from developers.
  • The translation manager makes sure that the translations happen in a way that does not interfere unnecessarily with regular development.
  • When a new volunteer shows up offering to translate Subversion to, say, Malagasy, the translation manager has to either hook him up with someone who posted six months ago expressing interest in doing a Malagasy translation, or else politely ask the volunteer to go find another Malagasy translator to work with as a partner.
  • Conversations between the translation manager and the developers, or between the translation manager and translation teams, are usually held in the project's original language—that is, the language from which all the translations are being made.

• Attenuation

  • Attenuation is a regulatory mechanism used in bacterial operons to ensure proper transcription and translation.
  • In bacteria, transcription and translation are capable of proceeding simultaneously.
  • Hence, attenuators can function in either transcription-attenuation or translation-attenuation.
  • Translation-attenuation is characterized by the sequestration of the Shine-Dalgarno sequence.
  • Hence, this specific process is referred to as translation-attenuation.

• Prokaryotic versus Eukaryotic Gene Expression

  • To synthesize a protein, the processes of transcription (DNA to RNA) and translation (RNA to protein) occur almost simultaneously.
  • The newly-synthesized RNA is then transported out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm where ribosomes translate the RNA into protein.
  • The processes of transcription and translation are physically separated by the nuclear membrane; transcription occurs only within the nucleus, and translation occurs only outside the nucleus within the cytoplasm.
  • Regulation may occur when the DNA is uncoiled and loosened from nucleosomes to bind transcription factors (epigenetics), when the RNA is transcribed (transcriptional level), when the RNA is processed and exported to the cytoplasm after it is transcribed (post-transcriptional level), when the RNA is translated into protein (translational level), or after the protein has been made (post-translational level).
  • Further regulation may occur through post-translational modifications of proteins.

• The Initiation Complex and Translation Rate

  • The first step of translation is ribosome assembly, which requires initiation factors.
  • In translation, before protein synthesis can begin, ribosome assembly has to be completed.
  • Translation is ready to begin.
  • Therefore, the 43S complex cannot form properly and translation is impeded.
  • Discuss how eukaryotes assemble ribosomes on the mRNA to begin translation

• Unsticking Stuck Ribosomes

  • Ribosomes translating the mRNA eventually translate into the 3'poly-A tail region of transcripts and stalls.
  • There are two ways in which cells deal with stuck ribosomes, nonstop mediated decay (NSD) and Trans-translation.
  • rans-Translation stages A through F.
  • Regular translation eventually resumes.
  • Differentiate between nonstop mediated decay and trans-translation as mechanisms of freeing stuck ribosomes

• Types of Exchange Exposure: Short-Run, Long-Run, and Translation

  • Foreign currency exposures are categorized as transaction/ short-run exposure, economic/ long-run exposure, and translation exposure.
  • Foreign currency exposures are generally categorized into the following three distinct types: transaction (short-run) exposure, economic (long-run) exposure, and translation exposure.
  • A firm's translation exposure is the extent to which its financial reporting is affected by exchange rate movements.
  • While translation exposure may not affect a firm's cash flows, it could have a significant impact on a firm's reported earnings and therefore its stock price.
  • Translation exposure is distinguished from transaction risk as a result of income and losses from various types of risk having different accounting treatments.