History of entheogenic drugs

Entheogenic drugs have been used by various groups for thousands of years. There are numerous historical reports as well as modern, contemporary reports of indigenous groups using entheogens, chemical substances used in a religious, shamanic, or spiritual context.[1]

In the archaeological record

Entheogenic drugs have been used since prehistoric times on all continents, they allowed the development of art movements, magical thinking and the development of beliefs, religions, and cults all over the globe, thanks to their psychoactive properties such as euphoria, dysphoria and hallucinating properties.

Some entheogens can be found in all the continents, one of the most commons is Ephedra, its active ingredients are ephedrine and pseudoephedrine; Another group is the psilocybe mushroom family, their main active ingredient is psilocybin. Others families grow in specific areas such as the following:

Americas

Entheogens were used by the Olmec, the Maya, the Aztecs, and Native Americans of the southwest United States.

Amazons
DrugActive ingredientsPeriod of use
Anadenanthera peregrina5-MeO-DMT, N-Methyltryptamine (NMT), N,N-Dimethyltryptamine
Psychotria viridisHarmine
Banisteriopsis caapidimethyltryptamine (DMT), beta-Carboline, N-Methyltryptamine

Ayahuasca is a South American (pan-Amazonian)[2] psychoactive brew used both socially and as ceremonial spiritual medicine among the indigenous peoples of the Amazon basin.[3][4] It is a psychedelic and entheogenic brew commonly made out of the Banisteriopsis caapi vine, and the Psychotria viridis shrub or a substitute, and possibly other ingredients.[5]

Psychotria viridis contains DMT and B. caapi contains alkaloids that act as MAOIs (beta-Carboline among others). In the intestinal gut monoamine oxidase enzymes is in charge of the inactivation of chemical compounds before they are able to reach the bloodstream. MAOIs inactivate monoamine oxidase enzymes allowing DMT to preserve its chemical structure and pass into the blood stream and from there passing through the Blood–brain barrier reaching the brain, making DMT in this way orally active.[6]

Ayahuasca is prepared in a tea that when consumed and causes an altered state of consciousness or "high", including visual hallucinations and altered perceptions of reality.[2]

Andean civilizations
DrugActive ingredientsPeriod of use
CocaCocaine, Ecgonine
Aztecs
DrugActive ingredientsPeriod of use
Psilocybe aztecorumPsilocybin, Psilocin, Baeocystin
Psilocybe baeocystisPsilocybin, Psilocin, Baeocystin, Norbaeocystin
Incilius alvariusBufotenin, 5-MeO-DMT
Datura speciesAtropine
PeyoteMescaline (3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine)
Olmecs
DrugActive ingredientsPeriod of use
BufoBufotoxins: 5-MeO-DMT, Bufotenin
Maya
DrugActive ingredientsPeriod of use
Amanita muscariaMuscimol
Salvia divinorumSalvinorin A
Morning glory species: Ipomoea corymbosa, Ipomoea tricolorDifferent alkaloids of the LSD family.
Nymphaea ampla
Heimia salicifolia
Moche culture
DrugActive ingredientsPeriod of use
Echinopsis pachanoi or San Pedro cactusMescaline
Kickapoo people
DrugActive ingredientsPeriod of use
Lophophora diffusaPellotine
Lophophora williamsiiMescaline (3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine)
Pantropical species
DrugActive ingredientsPeriod of use
Psilocybe cubensisPsilocybin, Psilocin, Baeocystin, Norbaeocystin
Lophophora williamsiiMescaline (3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine)

Europe

A cave painting in Spain has been interpreted as depicting Psilocybe hispanica.[7][8]

Europe
DrugActive ingredientsPeriod of use
Mandragora officinarumAtropine and scopolamine (antimuscarinics
Hyoscyamus nigerHyoscyamine, scopolamine, and other tropane alkaloids
OpiumMorphine, codeine, noscapine, papaverine, thebaine
ScopoliaScopolamine (also known as hyoscine
Atropa belladonnaBelladonnine and Atropine alkaloids (Atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine).

Asia

Himalaya
DrugActive ingredientsPeriod of use
Cannabis sativaTetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiolSince 2,700 BC
Peganum harmalaHarmala alkaloid
Psilocybe pseudoaztecorumPsilocybin
Psilocybe natarajaniiPsilocybin
CharasCannabis concentrate made from the resin of a live cannabis plant
HashishCannabis (drug) made by compressing and processing trichomes of the cannabis plant.

Oceania

Andean civilizations
DrugActive ingredientsPeriod of use
PituriMixture of leaves of Acacia Species (N,N-Dimethyltryptamine or DMT and β-Methylphenethylamine) and Duboisia hopwoodii (Nicotine).
Areca nutArecoline

Africa

Entheogenics in Africa
DrugActive ingredientsPeriod of useCountries
KhatCathinone, CathineEgypt, Ethiopia
Sceletium tortuosum (kanna)MesembrineSouth Africa
IbogaIbogaine, VoacangineGabon, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo

19th century

Entheogenic drugs have being used by humans for thousands of years by religion and shamanic purposes.

One of the oldest known is peyote, it has been used for at least 5,700 years by Native Americans in Mexico.[9] Arthur Heffter isolated mescaline from the peyote cactus in 1897 and described its molecular structure.

20th century

In the 20th century scientists acumulated the ancient knowledge of natural enthogenic drugs and with modern methods understanded their structure and studied its effect in human brain.

In 1912 Merck laboratories sintetized the drug 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), currently known as ecstasy,[10] It was used to enhance psychotherapy beginning in the 1970s and became popular as a street drug in the 1980s.[11][12] Klüver was a member of the 'core group' of cybernetics pioneers that participated in the Macy Conferences of the 1940s and 1950s.

Ernst Späth synthesised mescaline in 1919.

In 1928 Heinrich Klüver was the first to systematically study its psychological effects in a small book called Mescal and Mechanisms of Hallucinations. The book stated that the drug could be used to research the unconscious mind. He coined the term "cobweb figure" in the 1920s to describe one of the four form constant geometric visual hallucinations experienced in the early stage of a mescaline trip: "Colored threads running together in a revolving center, the whole similar to a cobweb". The other three are the chessboard design, tunnel, and spiral. Klüver wrote that "many 'atypical' visions are upon close inspection nothing but variations of these form-constants."[13]

In 1953 Aldous Huxley published The Doors of Perception, in it elaborates on his psychedelic experience under the influence of mescaline in May 1953. Huxley recalls the insights he experienced, ranging from the "purely aesthetic" to "sacramental vision",[14]

MK Ultra

R. Gordon Wasson had a funded expedition in 1956[15] by the CIA's MK-Ultra subproject 58, as was revealed by documents[16] obtained by John Marks[17] under the Freedom of Information Act. The documents state that Wasson was an 'unwitting' participant in the project.[16]

The funding was provided under the cover name of the Geschickter Fund for Medical Research (credited by Wasson at the end of his subsequent Life piece about the expedition).

On May 13, 1957, Life magazine published an article titled "Seeking the Magic Mushroom", which introduced psychoactive mushrooms to a wide audience for the first time. Just a few days later a personal account by his wife about their research in Mexico was published in the magazine This Week.,[18] it was written by R. Gordon Wasson, A BANKER, ethnomycologist, and Vice President for Public Relations at J.P. Morgan & Co.[19][20][21][22] about the use of psilocybin mushrooms in religious rites of the indigenous Mazatec people of Mexico.

In 1957 Gastón Guzmán Huerta, a Mexican mycologist and anthropologist, was invited by the University of Mexico to assist Rolf Singer, who would arrive to Mexico in 1958 to study the hallucinogenic mushroom genus Psilocybe. While they were in the Huautla de Jiménez region, in their last day of the expeditions, they met R. Gordon Wasson. Guzman became an authority on the genus Psilocybe.

In 1958, the French mycologist Roger Heim brought psilocybin tablets to Mazatec curandera María Sabina, that was the first velada using the active principle of the mushrooms rather than the raw mushrooms themselves took place.[23] In 1962, R. Gordon Wasson and Albert Hofmann went to Mexico to visit her. They also brought a bottle of psilocybin pills.[24] Sandoz was marketing them under the brand name Indocybin—"indo" for both Indian and indole (the nucleus of their chemical structures) and "cybin" for the main molecular constituent, psilocybin. Hofmann gave his synthesized entheogen to the curandera. "Of course, Wasson recalled, Albert Hofmann is so conservative he always gives too little a dose, and it didn't have any effect." Hofmann had a different interpretation: "activation of the pills, which must dissolve in the stomach, takes place after 30 to 45 minutes. In contrast, the mushrooms when chewed, work faster as the drug is absorbed immediately". To settle her doubts about the pills, more were distributed. María, her daughter, and the shaman, Don Aurelio, ingested up to 30 mg each, a moderately high dose by current standards but not perhaps by the more experienced practitioners. At dawn, their Mazatec interpreter reported that María Sabina felt there was little difference between the pills and the mushrooms. She thanked Hofmann for the bottle of pills, saying that she would now be able to serve people even when no mushrooms were available.[25][26]

Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert

Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert studied and researched the effects of LSD and hallucinogenic mushrooms in the United States and Mexico.

Harvard psilocybin project

The Harvard Psilocybin Project was a series of experiments in psychology conducted by Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert. The founding board of the project consisted of Leary, Aldous Huxley, David McClelland (Leary's and Alpert's superior at Harvard University),[27] Frank Barron, Ralph Metzner, and two graduate students who were working on a project with mescaline.[28]

In 1960, Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert ordered psilocybin from Swiss-based company Sandoz with the intent to test if different administration modes lead to different experiences. To a greater extent, they believed that psilocybin could be the solution for the emotional problems of the Western man.[29]

Zihuatanejo Project

The Zihuatanejo Project was a psychedelic training center and intentional community created during the beginning of the counterculture of the 1960s by Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert under the umbrella of their nonprofit group, the International Federation for Internal Freedom (IFIF). The community was located in Zihuatanejo, Guerrero, Mexico, and took up residence at the Hotel Catalina in the summers of 1962 and 1963.[30]

Leary and Alpert first discovered the town of Zihuatanejo in 1960. After the Marsh Chapel Experiment in 1962 they decided the area would make a good location for a training center.[31] The idea for the community was influenced by Aldous Huxley's fictional novel, Island (1962).[32][33]

Thousands of people applied to the IFIF in the hopes of joining the project in Zihuatanejo.[34] Out of this pool of applicants, a small, select group of people were chosen. Amenities cost $200 a month per person, including food and lodging in bungalows near a secluded beach. Fishermen supplied a bounty of fresh fish from the bay. During the first training session in 1962, Leary and 35 guests rented the Catalina Hotel for a month using their own version of the Tibetan Book of the Dead as a guide book for LSD sessions; Ralph Metzner and Richard Alpert helped manage the group.[35] Group LSD sessions began in the morning with the consumption of liquid LSD, with a dosage of 100 to 500 micrograms ingested by participating individuals; the experience would usually last until late afternoon.

Concord Prison Experiment

The Concord Prison Experiment was designed to evaluate whether the experiences produced by the psychoactive drug psilocybin, derived from psilocybin mushrooms, combined with psychotherapy, could inspire prisoners to leave their antisocial lifestyles behind once they were released. How well it worked was to be judged by comparing the recidivism rate of subjects who received psilocybin with the average for other Concord inmates.

The experiment was conducted between February 1961 and January 1963 in Concord State Prison, a maximum-security prison for young offenders, in Concord, Massachusetts by a team of Harvard University researchers.[36] The team were under the direction of Timothy Leary and included Michael Hollingshead, Allan Cohen, Alfred Alschuder, George Litwin, Ralph Metzner, Gunther Weil, and Ralph Schwitzgebel, with Madison Presnell as the medical and psychiatric adviser. The original study involved the administration of psilocybin manufactured by Sandoz Pharmaceuticals to assist group psychotherapy for 32 prisoners in an effort to reduce recidivism rates. The researchers would administer psilocybin to themselves along with the prisoners, on the grounds of "[creating] a sense of equality and shared experience, and to dispel the fear that often accompanies relationships between [experimenters] and [subjects]".[37]

Alexander Shulgin

Alexander Shulgin obtained a DEA Schedule I license for an analytical laboratory, which allowed him to synthesize and possess any otherwise ilcit drug, in order to work with scheduled psychoactive chemicals and set up a chemical synthesis laboratory in a small building behind his house, which gave him a great deal of career autonomy. Shulgin used this freedom to synthesize and test the effects of potentially psychoactive drugs. In 1970s developed new methods of synthesis of MDMA, a drug commonly associated with dance parties, raves, and electronic dance music.[38] It may be mixed with other substances such as ephedrine, amphetamine, and methamphetamine. In 2016, about 21 million people between the ages of 15 and 64 used ecstasy (0.3% of the world population).[39] This was broadly similar to the percentage of people who use cocaine or amphetamines, but lower than for cannabis or opioids.[39] In the United States, as of 2017, about 7% of people have used MDMA at some point in their lives and 0.9% have used it in the last year.[40]

In 1991 and 1997, Alexander Shulgin and his wife Ann Shulgin compiled the books PIHKAL and TIHKAL (standing for Phenethylamines and Tryptamines I Have Known And Loved), from notebooks which extensively described their work and personal experiences with these two classes of psychoactive drugs. Shulgin performed seminal work into the descriptive synthesis of many of these compounds. Some of Shulgin's noteworthy discoveries include compounds of the 2C* family (such as 2C-B) and compounds of the DOx family (such as DOM).

Terence McKenna

Terence McKenna discovered and began studying shamanism through the study of Tibetan folk religion while he a student of Tussman Experimental College. He traveled to Nepal and Tibet led by his interest in Tibetan painting and hallucinogenic shamanism. In 1972, McKenna returned to U.C. Berkeley to finish his studies and graduated in 1975 with a degree in ecology, shamanism, and conservation of natural resources. Terence Mckenna advocated for the legalization of the cultivation and use of psychedelic drugs, since have being used for thousands of years, but was in favor of self-restraint and responsibility of the users, allowing humans to choose and alternate between their addictions, instead of having to spend their whole day in one or two addiction such are alcohol, work, television or other obsessions.

McKenna theorized that mushrooms where superior intelligences that came to the planet in form of fungi spores, and that when entheogens were consumed by ancient humans groups, they developed physical, physiological, mental and social advantages promoting evolution human brains.

McKenna, along with his brother Dennis, developed a technique for cultivating psilocybin mushrooms using spores they brought to America from the Amazon.[41][42][43][44] In 1976, the brothers published what they had learned in the book Psilocybin: Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide, under the pseudonyms "O.T. Oss" and "O.N. Oeric".[45][46] McKenna and his brother were the first to come up with a reliable method for cultivating psilocybin mushrooms at home.[45][47][42][43] As ethnobiologist Jonathan Ott explains, "[the] authors adapted San Antonio's technique (for producing edible mushrooms by casing mycelial cultures on a rye grain substrate; San Antonio 1971) to the production of Psilocybe [Stropharia] cubensis. The new technique involved the use of ordinary kitchen implements, and for the first time the layperson was able to produce a potent entheogen in his [or her] own home, without access to sophisticated technology, equipment, or chemical supplies."[48] When the 1986 revised edition was published, the Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide had sold over 100,000 copies.[45][46][49]

Heffter Research Institute

In 1993 by David E. Nichols, Mark Geyer, George Greer, Charles Grob, and Dennis McKenna founded the Heffter Research Institute, a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization that promotes research with classic hallucinogens and psychedelics, predominantly psilocybin, to contribute to a greater understanding of the mind and to alleviate suffering. Founded in 1993 as a virtual institute, Heffter primarily funds academic and clinical scientists and made more than $3.1 million in grants between 2011 and 2014.[50][51][52][53] Heffter's recent clinical studies have focused on psilocybin-assisted treatment for end-of-life anxiety and depression in cancer patients, as well as alcohol and nicotine addiction. Several Heffter-supported studies on Spiritual experiences and practices involving ayahuasca and psilocybin have been published.

Influence on artistic movements

During the Formative Period of the Olmec civilization was developed the art of figurines of terracotta, jade, serpentine, greenstone, basalt, and other minerals and stones.

Many Olmec figurines combined human and animal features, although figurines showing such combinations of features are generally termed "transformation figures", some researchers argue that they represent humans in animal masks or animal suits, while others state that they likely represent shamans.

Some of the figures are were-eagle, bat-like features, and were-jaguars, most common, however, is the jaguar transformation figurine which show a wide variety of styles, ranging from human-like figurines to those that are almost completely jaguar, and several where the subject appears to be in a stage of transformation.[54]

Psilocybe Mushrooms statues

The Maya (250 BCE to 900 CE) flourished in Central America. Mushroom stone effigies, dated to 1000 BCE, give evidence that mushrooms were at least revered in a religious way.

Influence on religion

Entheogens have the ability of alter the state of conscience of the consumer, allowing it to have uncommon experiences, dreams, when the consumer believe the perceptions of what was experienced could lead a solidification of beliefs in one person or groups.

The Maya displayed characteristic Mesoamerican mythology, with a strong emphasis on an individual being a communicator between the physical world and the spiritual world. Mushroom stone effigies, dated to 1000 BCE, give evidence that mushrooms were at least revered in a religious way.[55]

Even if all religions and belief systems emerged in similar ways (polytheists and some monotheists), during the last centuries, the religions with support of empires and states were able to be impose their system of believes in the conquered territories, therefore many of them are almost extinct.

See also

Notes

    References

    1. ↑ Souza, Rafael Sampaio Octaviano de; Albuquerque, Ulysses Paulino de; Monteiro, Júlio Marcelino; Amorim, Elba Lúcia Cavalcanti de (October 2008). "Jurema-Preta (Mimosa tenuiflora [Willd.] Poir.): a review of its traditional use, phytochemistry and pharmacology". Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology. 51 (5): 937–947. doi:10.1590/S1516-89132008000500010.
    2. 1 2 Goldin, Deana; Salani, Deborah (2021). "Ayahuasca: What Healthcare Providers Need to Know". Journal of Addictions Nursing. 32 (2): 167–173. doi:10.1097/JAN.0000000000000405. PMID 34060770. S2CID 235398326.
    3. ↑ "Overviews Shamanism – On the Origin of Ayahuasca". Ayahuasca.com. 2008. Retrieved 27 April 2013.
    4. ↑ Hay, Mark (4 November 2020). "The Colonization of the Ayahuasca Experience". JSTOR Daily. JSTOR. Retrieved 21 May 2021.
    5. ↑ MacRae, Edward (March 23, 1999). "The Ritual and Religious Use of Ayahuasca in Contemporary Brazil" (PDF). Geneva, Switzerland. Retrieved 14 August 2017.
    6. ↑ Riba; et al. (Jul 2003). "Human Pharmacology of Ayahuasca: Subjective and Cardiovascular Effects, Monoamine Metabolite Excretion, and Pharmacokinetics". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 306 (1): 73–85. doi:10.1124/jpet.103.049882. PMID 12660312. S2CID 6147566.
    7. ↑ "Earliest evidence for magic mushroom use in Europe". New Scientist. No. 2802. 5 March 2011. Retrieved 18 September 2017.
    8. ↑ Akers, Brian P.; Ruiz, Juan Francisco; Piper, Alan; Ruck, Carl A. P. (June 2011). "A Prehistoric Mural in Spain Depicting Neurotropic Psilocybe Mushrooms?1". Economic Botany. 65 (2): 121–128. doi:10.1007/s12231-011-9152-5. S2CID 3955222.
    9. ↑ El-Seedi HR, De Smet PA, Beck O, Possnert G, Bruhn JG (October 2005). "Prehistoric peyote use: alkaloid analysis and radiocarbon dating of archaeological specimens of Lophophora from Texas". J Ethnopharmacol. 101 (1–3): 238–42. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.04.022. PMID 15990261.
    10. ↑ Freudenmann RW, Öxler F, Bernschneider-Reif S (August 2006). "The origin of MDMA (ecstasy) revisited: the true story reconstructed from the original documents" (PDF). Addiction. 101 (9): 1241–1245. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01511.x. PMID 16911722. Although MDMA was, in fact, first synthesized at Merck in 1912, it was not tested pharmacologically because it was only an unimportant precursor in a new synthesis for haemostatic substances.
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    12. ↑ "DrugFacts: MDMA (Ecstasy/Molly)". National Institute on Drug Abuse. February 2016. Archived from the original on 23 March 2016. Retrieved 30 March 2016.
    13. ↑ A Dictionary of Hallucations. Oradell, NJ.: Springer. 2010. p. 102.
    14. ↑ Huxley, Aldous (1954) The Doors of Perception, Chatto and Windus, p. 15
    15. ↑ Irvin, Jan (2013). Rush, John (ed.). R. Gordon Wasson: The Man, the Legend, the Myth. In: Entheogens and the Development of Culture. Berkeley: North Atlantic Books. location 10098-10170. ISBN 978-1-58394-624-4.
    16. 1 2 CIA. "MKUltra Subproject 58 doc 17457 -- JP Morgan & Co. (see Wasson file)" (PDF). National Security Archive, George Washington University. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
    17. ↑ Marks, John (1979). The Search for the Manchurian Candidate. Times Books. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-8129-0773-5.
    18. ↑ Bartlett, Amy (2020-11-11). "The Cost of Omission: Dr. Valentina Wasson and Getting Our Stories Right". Chacruna. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
    19. ↑ "Medicine: Mushroom Madness". Time. 1958-06-16. Archived from the original on July 15, 2009. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
    20. ↑ Tarinas, Joaquim. "ROBERT GORDON WASSON Seeking the Magic Mushroom". Imaginaria.org. Retrieved 22 December 2017.
    21. ↑ "R. Gordon Wasson: Archives". Harvard University Herbaria. Archived from the original on 24 August 2009. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
    22. ↑ Jacobs, Travis Beal (2001). Eisenhower at Columbia. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-7658-0036-7.
    23. ↑ Verroust, Vincent (June 2019). "De la découverte des champignons à psilocybine à la renaissance psychédélique". Ethnopharmacologia (n° 61): 12.
    24. ↑ "Ethnopharmacognosy and Human Pharmacology of Salvia divinorum and Salvinorin A". sagewisdom.org. Retrieved 4 July 2021.
    25. ↑ Psychedelics Encyclopedia, pp. 237–238
    26. ↑ "LIFE on LSD". Life. Archived from the original on 26 October 2010.
    27. ↑ "Leary Lectures at Harvard for First Time in 20 Years". The New York Times. 25 April 1983. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
    28. ↑ Stafford, Peter; Jeremy Bigwood (1993). Psychedelics Encyclopedia. Ronin Publishing. ISBN 0-914171-51-8.
    29. ↑ Andrew T. Weil, The Strange Case of the Harvard Drug Scandal, Psychedelic-library.org, 5 November 1963
    30. ↑ Leary, Timothy; Richard Alpert; Ralph Metzner. 1964. "Rationale of the Mexican Psychedelic Training Center". In Richard Blum: Utopiates: The Use and Users of LSD-25, 178-186. New York: Atherton Press. ISBN 0202363244
    31. ↑ Conners, Peter. 2010. White Hand Society: The Psychedelic Partnership of Timothy Leary & Allen Ginsberg. City Lights Books. ISBN 0872865754
    32. ↑ Greenfield, Robert. 2006. Timothy Leary: A Biography. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0-15603-206-6. 186.
    33. ↑ Lattin, Don. 2011. The Harvard Psychedelic Club: How Timothy Leary, Ram Dass, Huston Smith, and Andrew Weil Killed the Fifties and Ushered in a New Age for America. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06165-594-5. 2011, 99, 112.
    34. ↑ Lee, Martin A. & Shlain, Bruce. 1992. "Preaching LSD". Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond, Grove Press, ISBN 0-8021-3062-3. 96-98.
    35. ↑ Dass, Ram; Metzner, Ralph; Bravo, Gary. 2010. Birth of a Psychedelic Culture: Conversations about Leary, the Harvard Experiments, Millbrook and the Sixties. Synergetic Press. ISBN 9780907791386
    36. ↑ Leary, Timothy; Metzner, Ralph; Presnell, Madison; Weil, Gunther; Schwitzgebel, Ralph; Kinne, Sarah (July 1965). "A New Behavior Change Program Using Psilocybin". Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice. 2 (2): 61–72. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1022.1124. doi:10.1037/h0088612.
    37. ↑ Leary, Timothy; Litwin, George; Metzner, Ralph (December 1963). "Reactions to psilocybin administered in a supportive environment". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 137 (6): 561–573. doi:10.1097/00005053-196312000-00007. PMID 14087676. S2CID 39777572.
    38. ↑ World Health Organization (2004). Neuroscience of Psychoactive Substance Use and Dependence. World Health Organization. pp. 97–. ISBN 978-92-4-156235-5. Archived from the original on 28 April 2016.
    39. 1 2 World Drug Report 2018 (PDF). United Nations. June 2018. p. 7. ISBN 978-92-1-148304-8. Retrieved 14 July 2018.
    40. ↑ "MDMA (Ecstasy/Molly)". National Institute on Drug Abuse. Retrieved 14 July 2018.
    41. ↑ Lin, Tao (13 August 2014). "Psilocybin, the Mushroom, and Terence McKenna". Vice. Retrieved 12 July 2018.
    42. 1 2 Letcher, Andy (2007). "14.The Elf-Clowns of Hyperspace". Shroom: A Cultural History of the Magic Mushroom. Harper Perennial. pp. 253–74. ISBN 978-0060828295.
    43. 1 2 Davis, Erik (May 2000). "Terence McKenna's last trip". Wired. Vol. 8, no. 5. Retrieved 2013-09-10.
    44. ↑ McKenna 1993, pp. 205–07.
    45. 1 2 3 Pinchbeck, 2003 & pp232-235.
    46. 1 2 Letcher 2007, p. 278.
    47. ↑ Martin, Douglas (September 10, 2013). "Terence McKenna, 53, dies; Patron of psychedelic drugs". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-09-12.
    48. ↑ Ott J. (1993). Pharmacotheon: Entheogenic Drugs, their Plant Sources and History. Kennewick, Washington: Natural Products Company. p. 290. ISBN 978-0-9614234-3-8.; see San Antonio JP. (1971). "A laboratory method to obtain fruit from cased grain spawn of the cultivated mushroom, Agaricus bisporus". Mycologia. 63 (1): 16–21. doi:10.2307/3757680. JSTOR 3757680. PMID 5102274.
    49. ↑ McKenna & McKenna 1976, Preface (revised ed.).
    50. ↑ "Guidestar". Guidestar USA. 1 May 2016.
    51. ↑ "Guidestar" (PDF). Guidestar. January 2015. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
    52. ↑ "Guidestar" (PDF). January 2013. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
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    55. ↑ Tedlock 1992:46–53

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