List of Etruscan mythological figures

This is a list of deities and legendary figures found in Etruscan mythology.

The names below were taken mainly from Etruscan "picture bilinguals", which are Etruscan call-outs on art depicting mythological scenes or motifs. Several different media provide names. Variants of the names are given, reflecting differences in language in different localities and times.

Many of the names are Etruscan spellings (and pronunciations) of Greek names. The themes may or may not be entirely Greek. Etruscans frequently added their own themes to Greek myths. The same may be said of native Italic names rendered into Etruscan. Some names are entirely Etruscan, which is often a topic of debate in the international forum of scholarship.

Deities
Deity Description
AchlaeGreek river god Achelous.[1]
Achvizr, Achuvesr, Achuvizr, AchviztrUnknown character associated with Turan.[2] It may be one of the Samothracian Great Gods or Cabeiri (Άξίερος, perhaps from *Aχsiver-) according to É. Benveniste.[3]
ais (pl. aiser),
eis (pl. eisar)		general term for gods.[4][5]
aiser sigods of light.[5]
aiser seugods of darkness.[5]
Aita, EitaEpithet of Śuri, Etruscan equivalent of the Greek god of the underworld and ruler of the dead, Hades.[2]
Alpanu, Alpan, AlpnuEtruscan goddess, whose name is identical to Etruscan "willingly".[2]
AminthEtruscan winged deity in the form of a child, probably identified with Amor.[6]
AniDivinity named on the periphery of the Piacenza Liver as dominant in that section. It seems to correspond to Martianus Capella's Templum I, north, ruled by Janus, for which Ani appears to be the Etruscan word.[7]
Apulu, ApluEpithet of Śuri, Etruscan equivalent to the god Apollo.[6]
Apru Alternate Etruscan spelling of Aphrodite. See Turan.[8]
ArilEtruscan deity identified with Atlas.[6]
Aritimi, ArtumesThe goddess Artemis.[6]
AthrpaThe goddess Atropos, one of the Moirai. [6]
CaluEpithet of Śuri,[9] Etruscan infernal god of wolves, represented by a wolf.[10] Associated with Tinia and Selvans.[9]
Catha, Cavtha, CathAn Etruscan deity, god and goddess, not well represented in the art. She appears in the expression ati cath, "Mother Cath"[11] and also maru Cathsc, "the maru of Cath". The nature of the maru is not known. She is also called śech, "daughter,"[12] which seems to fit Martianus Capella's identification of the ruler of Region VI of the sky as Celeritas solis filia, "Celerity the daughter of the sun." In the Piacenza Liver the corresponding region is ruled by Cath.[13] Van der Meer considers Cautha/Cavtha/Cavatha to be a separate deity from Cath(a), the former being a kind of Aurora or "eye of the sun" as well as an underworld deity who is paired with Śuri.[14]
CelEtruscan earth goddess, probably identified with Ge, as she had a giant for a son. Her name occurs in the expression ati Cel, "Mother Cel."[11]
CrapstiJupiter-like deity in Liber Linteus, the name seems to be from an Umbrian local deity Grabouie.[15]
CulsansTwo-faced god of doors and doorways, corresponding to the two-faced Roman god Janus.
EitaGreek Hades seen on the Golini Tomb with Persephone (here Phersipnei)[16] See Aita above
EnieGreek Enyo, one of the Graeae.[17]
ErisThe goddess Eris.[18]
ErusThe god Eros.[18]
EsplaceThe legendary healer, Asklepios.[18]
Ethausva, EthEtruscan goddess, attendant at the birth of Menrva.[18]
Euturpa, EuterpeThe Greek goddess Euterpe.[18]
FeroniaAn obscure rural goddess primarily known from the various Roman cults who worshipped her.[19]
FuflunsEtruscan god of wine, identified with Dionysus. The name is used in the expressions Fufluns Pacha (Bacchus) and Fufluns Pachie.[18][20] Puplona (Populonia) was named from Fufluns.[21]
HortaGoddess of agriculture (highly conjectural).
HercleHerceleHereceleHerkleHrcleEtruscan form of the Greek hero Hēraklēs, Roman Hercules.[22] With Perseus, the main Etruscan hero, the adopted son of Uni/Juno, who suckled the adult Hercle. His image appears more often than any other on Etruscan carved hardstones. His name appears on the bronze Piacenza Liver, used for divination (hepatoscopy), a major element of Etruscan religious practice.
IlithiiaThe goddess of childbirth, known to the Greeks as Eileithyia. Occurs also in the expression flereś atis ilithiial, "statue of mother Eileithyia."[22]
LaranEtruscan god of war.[23]
LasaOne of a class of deities, plural Lasas, mainly female, but sometimes male, from which the Roman Lares came. Where the latter were the guardians of the dead, the Etruscan originals formed the court of Turan. Lasa often precedes an epithet referring to a particular deity: Lasa Sitmica, Lasa Achununa, Lasa Racuneta, Lasa Thimrae, Lasa Vecuvia.[23]
Lasa VecuviaGoddess of prophecy, associated with the nymph Vegoia.[23] See under Begoë.
LeinthEtruscan divinity, male and female,[24] possibly related to lein, Etruscan word for "to die", but does not appear in any death scenes.[23]
Letham, Lethns, Letha, Lethms, LetaAn Etruscan infernal goddess.[23]
LetunThe goddess known to the Greeks as Leto.[23]
LurUnderworld deity of prophecy and of war, whose cult may have involved human sacrifice.[25][26]
MalavischEtruscan divinity of the mirrors, probably from malena, "mirror."[27]
ManiaEtruscan infernal deity, forming a dyad with Manth (Latin: Mantus).[28] She went on into Latin literature, ruling beside Mantus and was reported to be the mother of the Lares and Manes.[29] Under the Etruscan kings, she received the sacrifices of slain children during the Laralia festival of May 1.[30]
ManthLatin: Mantus. Epithet of Śuri, Etruscan infernal deity, one of a dyad including Mania.[28] A tradition of Latin literature[31] names the Etruscan city of Manthua, later Mantua, after the deity.[21]
Mariś, MarisA class of divinity used with epithets: mariś turans, mariś husurnana, mariś menitla, mariś halna, mariś isminthians. The appearances in art are varied: a man, a youth, a group of babies cared for by Menrva.[27] The Roman god, Mars, is believed to have come from this name. Pallottino refers to the formation of a god by "... fusing groups of beings ... into one." Of Mars he says "... the protecting spirits of war, represented as armed heroes, tend to coalesce into a single deity, the Etrusco-Roman Mars, on the model of the Greek god Ares."[32] But L. Bonfane writes: "Mariś is not Mars, but a local divinity who, according to one interpretation, lived for the considerable period of 130 years, and had three lives."[33] The roots of the Italic god end in a -t, while no such ending is visible in the Etruscan form, which instead has in -i not seen in the Italic forms.
Mean, MeanpeEtruscan deity, equivalent of Nike or Victoria.[27]
Menerva, MenrvaThe Etruscan original to the Roman Minerva, made into Greek Athena.[27]
MunthukhGoddess of love and health, and one of the attendants of Turan
NethunsItalic divinity, probably Umbrian, of springs and water,[34] identified with Greek Poseidon and Roman Neptune, from which the name comes.[35] It occurs in the expression flere Nethuns, "the divinity of Nethuns."[36]
NortiaGoddess of fate and chance. Unattested in Etruscan texts but mentioned by Roman historian Livy.[37] Her attribute was a nail, which was driven into a wall in her temple during the Etruscan new year festival as a fertility rite.
OrcusEtruscan god of the underworld, punisher of broken oaths. He was portrayed in paintings in Etruscan tombs as a hairy, bearded giant.
PachaRoman Bacchus, an epithet of Fufluns.[34]
PemphetruGreek Pemphredo, one of the Graeae.[17]
Phersipnai, Phersipnei, Persipnei, ProserpnaiQueen of the underworld, equivalent to the Greek Persephone and Roman Proserpina.[17]
PhersuA divinity of the mask, probably from Greek πρόσωπον "face".[38] The god becomes adjectival, *phersuna, from which Latin persona.[17]
PrumatheThe Greek mythological figure Prometheus.[39]
RathEpithet of Śuri, Etruscan deity identified with Apollo. Tarquinia was his sanctuary.[39]
SatreEtruscan deity, source of, or derived from, the Roman god Saturn.[39]
SelvansGod who appears in the expression Selvansl Tularias, "Selvans of the boundaries", which identifies him as a god of boundaries. But also Selvans Calusta (see Calus above).[9] The name is either borrowed from the Roman god, Silvanus or the original source of the Roman god's name.[40]
SethlansEtruscan blacksmith and craftsman god, often wielding an axe. Equivalent to the Greek Hephaistos and Roman Vulcanus.[40]
SummanusEtruscan god of nocturnal thunder, often said to be Zeus's twin or opposite.
ŚuriAn oracular, chthonic Apollo, probably corresponding to Faliscan Soranus/Dīs Pater.[41]
SvutafA winged Etruscan deity whose name, if from the same Latin root as the second segment of persuade, might mean "yearning" and therefore be identifiable with Eros.[40]
TecumGod of the lucomenes, or ruling class.
Thalna, Thalana, TalnaEtruscan divine figure of multiple roles shown male, female, and androgynous. They attend the births of Menrva and Fufluns, dance as a Maenad and expound prophecy. In Greek θάλλειν "to bloom". A number of divinities fit the etymology: Greek Thallo and Hebe, and Roman Iuventas, "youth."[42][43]
ThanrAn Etruscan deity shown present at the births of deities.[42]
ThesanEtruscan goddess of the dawn. She was identified with the Roman Aurora and Greek Eos.[42]
ThetlvmthUnknown deity of the Piacenza Liver, which is not a picture bilingual.[44]
ThuflthaUnknown deity of the Piacenza Liver, which is not a picture bilingual.[44]
Tinia, Tina, TinChief Etruscan god, the ruler of the skies, husband of Uni, and father of Hercle, identified with the Greek Zeus and Roman Jupiter well within the Etruscan window of ascendance, as the Etruscan kings built the first temple of Jupiter at Rome. Called apa, "father" in inscriptions (parallel to the -piter in Ju-piter), he has most of the attributes of his Indo-European counterpart, with whom some have postulated a more remote linguistic connection.[45] The name means "day" in Etruscan. He is the god of boundaries and justice. He is depicted as a young, bearded male, seated or standing at the center of the scene, grasping a stock of thunderbolts. According to Latin literature, the bolts are of three types: for warning, good or bad interventions, and drastic catastrophes.[46] Unlike Zeus, Tin needs the permission of the Dii Consentes (consultant gods) and Dii Involuti (hidden gods – Graeae?) to wield the last two categories. A further epithet, Calusna (of Calu), hints at a connection to wolves or dogs and the underworld.[46]
Tiur, Tivr, TivEtruscan deity identified with Greek Selene and Roman Luna (goddess).[47]
Tlusc, Tluscv, Mar TluscUnknown deity of the Piacenza Liver, which is not a picture bilingual.[44][48] The corresponding region in Martianus Capella is ruled by Sancus, an Italic god and Sabine progenitor, who had a temple on the Quirinal Hill, and appears on an Etruscan boundary stone in the expression Selvans Sanchuneta, in which Sanchuneta seems to refer to the oaths establishing the boundary. Sancus probably comes from Latin sancīre, "to ratify an oath."[49]
TuranEtruscan goddess identified with Greek Aphrodite and Roman Venus. She appears in the expression, Turan ati, "Mother Turan", equivalent to Venus Genetrix.[50] Her name is a noun meaning "the act of giving" in Etruscan, based on the verb stem Tur- 'to give.'
Turmś, TurmsEtruscan god identified with Greek Hermes and Roman Mercurius. In his capacity as guide to the ghost of Tiresias, who has been summoned by Odysseus, he is Turms Aitas, "Turms Hades."[50]
TurnuAn Etruscan deity, a type of Eros, child of Turan.[50]
TV[?]thUnknown deity of the Piacenza Liver, which is not a picture bilingual.[44]
UniSupreme goddess of the Etruscan pantheon, wife of Tinia, mother of Hercle, and patroness of Perugia. With Tinia and Menrva, she was a member of the ruling triad of Etruscan deities. Uni was the equivalent of the Greek Hera and the Roman Juno, from whose name the name Uni may be derived.
UsilEpithet of Śuri, Etruscan deity identified with Greek Helios, Roman Sol.[47]
VeaEtruscan divinity, possibly taking its name from the city of Veii or vice versa.[51]
Veltha, Velthume, Vethune, VeltuneEtruscan deity, possible state god of the Etruscan league of Etruria, the Voltumna in the Latin expression Fanum Voltumnae, "shrine of Voltumna", which was their meeting place, believed located at Orvieto. The identification is based on reconstruction of a root *velthumna from Latin Voltumna, Vertumnus, and Voltumnus of literary sources, probably from Etruscan veltha, "earth" or "field". Representations of a bearded male with a long spear suggest Velthune may be an epithet of Tinia.[52]
Veiove, Veive, VetisEpithet of Śuri, Etruscan infernal deity whose temple stood at Rome near the Capitoline Hill.[51] The identification is made from the deity's Latin names related by a number of ancient authors over the centuries: Vēi, Vēdi, Vēdii, Veiovis, Vediovis, Vediiovis, Vedius.[53]
VesunaItalic goddess mentioned also in the Iguvine Tables.[51]
ZereneMacedonian goddess Zeirene Eleusia, Latin Ceres.[51]

Deified mortals
Name Description
CalaniceA Greek title for Hercle, Kallinikos.[54]
CasturCastor, one of the mythological twins.[54]
CatmiteThe Trojan youth, Ganymede, from an alternative Greek spelling, Gadymedes.[55] From the Etruscan is Latin Catamitus.[11]
PultucePulutucePulutukePultukePollux, one of the mythological twins, Greek Polydeuces.[39]
RathmtrRhadamanthys, the Greek mythological character, judge of the dead.[39]
Tinas cliniarEtruscan expression, "sons of Tina", designating the Dioscuri, proving that Tin was identified with Zeus.[47]

Spirits, demons, and other creatures
Name Description
AuluntheEtruscan, the name of a satyr.[54]
Begoë, VegoiaEtruscan nymph believed to have power over lightning. She was also said to have composed a tract known as Ars Fulguritarum ("Art of the Thunderstruck"), which was included in the Roman pagan canon, along with the Sibylline Books. These are merely versions of the Latin names for the Etruscan nymph Lasa Vecuvia (see below).[56]
CalainaThe Greek Nereid, Galene.[54]
CelsclanEtruscan Gigas, "son of Cel", identifying her as "Earth", as the giants in Greek mythology were the offspring of the earth.[11]
ChaluchasuTranslation of Greek panchalkos, "wholly of bronze", perhaps the robot of Crete, Talos.[11]
Charun, CharuThe mythological figure, Charon.[47]
ChelphunAn Etruscan satyr.
CulsuAlso Cul. A female underworld demon who was associated with gateways. Her attributes included a torch and scissors. She was often represented next to Culsans.
EvanAn attendant on Turan, sometimes male, sometimes female.[18]
Farthanspirit, genius (used in Liber Linteus in phrases like farthan in Crapsti "the spirit which (is) in Craps"[57]
HathnaEtruscan satyr.[22]
IynxAn Etruscan mythological creature, a bird of love.
Man, ManiEtruscan class of spirits representing "the dead"[58] and yet not the same as a hinthial, "ghost." From the Mani came the Latin Manes, which are both "the good" and the deified spirits of the dead.[59]
MetusThe Gorgon Medusa. The head appears on the Aegis of Menrva as a Gorgoneion.[27]
Pecse, PaksteThe name of the legendary winged horse, Pegasus, assigned by the Etruscans to the Trojan Horse.[34]
PuaneaEtruscan name of a satyr.[39]
SimeAn Etruscan satyr who has a Greek name.[40]
ThevruminesMinotaur
TuchulchaAn Etruscan daemon.[50]
TusnaPerhaps from *Turansna, "of Turan." The swan of Turan.[50]
VanthEtruscan winged demon of the underworld often depicted in the company of Charun. She could be present at the moment of death, and frequently acted as a guide of the deceased to the underworld.[47][51][60]
Vecu, Vecui, Vecuvia, VegoiaThe prophetic nymph Vegoia. See under Lasa Vecuvia,[51] Begoë.

Places
Name Description
Achrum, AcharumLegendary Greek river of the underworld, the Acheron.[2]
HipeceThe magic spring, Hippocrene, represented in Etruscan art as a water spout in the form of a lion's head.[22]
Truia, TruialsTroy, Trojan, the city of the Iliad.[61]

Mortals
Name Description
Achle, AchileLegendary hero of the Trojan War, from the Greek Achilles.[1]
AchmemrunLegendary king of Mycenaean Greece, from the Greek Agamemnon.[1]
Aivas Tlamunus, Aivas VilatesAlso Eivas or Evas. Etruscan equivalents of the Greek heroes Ajax, son of Telamon and Ajax, son of Oileus.[2]
AlchumenaThe Greek legendary character, Alcmena.[2]
Alcstei, AlcstiThe Greek legendary character, Alcestis.[2]
Alichsantre, Alechsantre, Alcsentre, Elchsntre, Elachśantre, Elachśntre, ElcsteThe Trojan legendary character, Alexandrus, otherwise known as Paris.[2][21]
AlpuneaProphetess, probably equivalent to the Latin Sybil Albunea, whose oracular sanctuary was in Tivoli, just east of Rome. She is sometimes pictured with the seer Umaele (on whom see below).[62]
AlthaiaThe Greek figure Althaea, mother of Meleager.[2]
Amuce, Amuche, AmukeThe Greek legendary figure Amycus of the Argonauts myth.[6]
AreathaThe mythological figure Ariadne.[6]
AtaiunThe mythological figure Actaeon.[6]
Atlenta, AtlntaThe mythological person Atalanta.[6]
AtmiteThe legendary character Admetus.[54]
AtunisThe mythological figure Adonis.[54]
AturmicaThe mythological figure Andromache, the Amazon.[54]
Capne, KapneThe legendary hero Capaneus.[54]
CaśntraCassandra, prophetess of the Trojan War.[54]
CercaEnchantress of the Odyssey Circe.[11]
CilensAlso written Celens.
Cluthumustha, ClutmstaThe female legendary character, Clytemnestra.[21]
CrisithaThe heroine of the Trojan War, the Greek name Chryseis.[17]
Easun, Heasun, HeiasunEtruscan version of the mythological hero Jason.
EcapaThe tragic heroine of the Trojan War, Hecuba.[17]
EcturHector, a hero of the Trojan War.[17]
Elinei, Elinai, ElinaThe character Helen of Trojan War fame.[21]
Epiur, EpeurGreek epiouros, "guardian", a boy presented to Tinia by Hercle, possibly Tages.[18]
Ermanialegendary character Hermione, daughter of Menelaus and Helen.[18]
EtuleGreek Aitolos, confused with his brother, Epeios, who built the Trojan horse.[18]
Evtucle, Evthucle, ThucleThe hero Eteocles.[18]
Hamphiare, AmphareLegendary seer Amphiaraus.[22]
Lasa VecuviaProphetess who revealed the nature of the Etruscan Arrun Veltumnus; Equivalent to the Latin nymph Begoe or Vegoia. Attendant to Minerva.[63]
LatvaGreek Leda, mother of Helen and the Dioscuri.[23]
Lunc, LncheThe legendary figure Lynceus.[23]
MeleacrThe legendary figure known to the Greeks as Meleager.[27]
Memnum, MemrumMemnon, a Trojan saved from Achle by his mother, Thesan.[27]
MenleThe hero Menelaus of Trojan War fame.[27]
Metaia, Metua, MetviaThe mythological character Medea.[27]
MlacuchA young Etruscan woman kidnapped by Hercle.[34]
NesturThe legendary hero Nestor.[34]
Palmithe, TalmitheThe hero Palamedes.[34]
Pantasila, PentasilaThe Greek name, Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons.[34]
PatruclePatroclus of Trojan War fame.[34]
Pava TarchiesEtruscan Tarchies in an expression: "boy Tarchies." See under Tarchies.[34]
PeleThe hero Peleus.[34]
Perse, PherseThe mythological hero Perseus.[17]
Phaun, Faun, PhamuThe mythological character Phaon.[17]
PhuinisThe Greek Phoinix, friend of Peleus.[17]
PhulsphnaThe legendary figure Polyxena.[17]
PrisisThe Greek Briseis mentioned in the Iliad.[17]
PriumnePriam king of Troy.[17]
SemlaThe Greek mortal Semele.[40]
Sispe, SispheThe legendary king Sisyphus.[40]
TagesSee Tarchies.
TaitleThe Etruscan form of the mythological figure Daedalus.[42]
TarchiesOccurs in Pava Tarchies, label of a central figure in depictions of divination, who, along with Epiur, a divinatory child, is believed to be the same as Tages, founder of the Etruscan religion, mentioned by Roman authors.[40]
TarchonAn Etruscan culture hero who, with his brother, Tyrrhenus, founded the Etruscan Federation of twelve cities.
TechrsFrom the Greek Trojan War hero Teucer.[42]
Telmun, Tlamun, Talmun, TlamuTelamon, a legendary Argonaut.[42]
Teriasals, TeriasaLegendary blind prophet Tiresias.[42]
TheseA hero who is the equivalent of Theseus.
ThethisThe Greek nymph Thetis, mother of Achilles.[1]
TuntleThe legendary figure, known to the Greeks as Tyndareus.[50]
TuteThe Greek hero Tydeus.[50]
TyrrhenusAn Etruscan culture hero and twin brother of Tarchon.
UmaeleA seer, associated with Alpunea (see above), with no clear connection with any known Latin or Greek figure. He carries a bag with a head in it that tells him prophesies, and is also seen on mirrors with one knee up and left arm extended apparently examining a liver for prophesy, that is haruspex.[64]
UrpheThe mythological figure Orpheus.[1]
UrustheThe homeric legendary character Orestes.[1]
UthsteThe legendary hero Odysseus
VelparunThe Greek hero Elpenor.[51]
VikareSon of Taitle, the mythological figure of Icarus.[65] The name is found inscribed once, on a golden bulla dating to the 5th century BCE now housed at the Walters Art Museum.[66]
Vile, VilaeGreek Iolaos, nephew of Hercle.[51]

See also

Notes
  1. The Bonfantes (2002), page 192.
  2. The Bonfantes (2002), page 193.
  3. É. Benveniste "Nom et origine de la déesse étrusque Acaviser" in Studi Etruschi 31929 pp. 249–258.
  4. The Bonfantes (1983).
  5. L. Bouke van der Meer's review of Il liber linteus di Zagabria: testualità e contenuto: (Biblioteca di “Studi Etruschi” 50, by Valentina Belfiore, Pisa/Roma: Fabrizio Serra editore, 2010. ISBN 9788862271943) in Bryn Mawr Classical Review (2011) 1.36. https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2011/2011.01.36/
  6. The Bonfantes (2002), page 194.
  7. Rykwert page 140. The liver and a list of names is depicted in Hooper & Schwartz page 223.
  8. de Grummond, N.T. & Simon, E. (eds). (2006). The Religion of the Etruscans. Austin, TX. University of Texas Press.
  9. Bouke van der Meer, Lammert "The Lead Plaque of Magliano," in: Interpretando l'antico. Scritti di archeologia offerti a Maria Bonghi Jovino. Milano 2013 (Quaderni di Acme 134) pp. 323-341 (327)
  10. De Grummond page 55.
  11. The Bonfantes (2002), page 196
  12. De Grummond page 105.
  13. Thulin pages 50 and 65.
  14. Bouke van der Meer, Lammert "The Lead Plaque of Magliano," in: Interpretando l'antico. Scritti di archeologia offerti a Maria Bonghi Jovino. Milano 2013 (Quaderni di Acme 134) pp. 323-341 (328)
  15. The Bonfantes (2002), page 215.
  16. Poulsen, Frederik (1922). Etruscan Tomb Paintings. Oxford: Clarendon Press, p. 50
  17. The Bonfantes (2002), page 203.
  18. The Bonfantes (2002) page 198.
  19. Titus Livius. Ab urbe condita. book 1, chapter 30, section 5.
  20. Leland, Chapter IV, Faflon.
  21. Pallottino page 248.
  22. The Bonfantes (2002) page 199.
  23. The Bonfantes (2002), page 200.
  24. De Grummond page 21.
  25. L. B. van der Meer Liber linteus zagrabiensis. The Linen Book of Zagreb. A Comment on the Longest Etruscan Text. Louvain/Dudley, MA 2007 pp.99-11
  26. De Grummond, Nancy Thomas "The cult of Lur : prophecy and human sacrifice?" in Mediterranea : quaderni annuali dell'Istituto di studi sulle civiltà italiche e del Mediterraneo antico del Consiglio nazionale delle ricerche, già Quaderni di archeologia etrusco-italica : XI, 2014, pp. 153-162
  27. The Bonfantes (2002), page 201.
  28. Pallottino, page 162.
  29. For a summary of her classical life, see Seyffert's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities under "Mania", online at Archived 2007-09-06 at the Wayback Machine ancientlibrary.com.
  30. Summers, page 24, quotes Macrobius, Saturnalia I vii on this topic.
  31. Virgil Aeneid Book X lines 199–200 says that it was named after the prophetess Manto, but Servius' gloss on Line 199 says that the city was named after Mantus and that he was Dispater, which corresponds to Aulus Caecina's view that Tarchon dedicated all the Etruscan cities of the Po valley to Dispater. De Grummond, pages 141, 205.
  32. Page 159.
  33. Bonfante, Larissa. Etruscan: Reading the Past. UCalP. 1990. p. 32
  34. The Bonfantes (2002), page 202.
  35. De Grummond page 59.
  36. Bonnefoy page 30.
  37. Livy vii. 3. 7
  38. The face theory is presented, among other reputable sources, by Eric Partridge, Origins, ISBN 0-517-41425-2.
  39. The Bonfantes (2002) page 204.
  40. The Bonfantes (2002), page 205.
  41. Bouke van der Meer, Lammert "The Lead Plaque of Magliano," in: Interpretando l'antico. Scritti di archeologia offerti a Maria Bonghi Jovino. Milano 2013 (Quaderni di Acme 134) pp. 323-341 (335)
  42. The Bonfantes (2002), page 206.
  43. De Grummond pages 152–153.
  44. The Bonfantes (2002), page 174.
  45. Bornhard, Allan R.; Kerns, John C. (1994). The Nostratic Macrofamily: A study in distant linguistic relationships. Walter de Gruyter. p. 304. ISBN 3-11-013900-6. – previewed on Google Books.
  46. De Grummond, Chapter IV.
  47. Swaddling & Bonfante page 78.
  48. Thulin page 59.
  49. De Grummond, page 50, features a diagram comparing Capella and the liver, while page 149 presents the boundary stone.
  50. The Bonfantes (2002), page 208.
  51. The Bonfantes (2002), page 210.
  52. A good development of the concept can be found in Harmon.
  53. Lewis & Short, Latin Lexicon, available online at www.perseus.com.
  54. The Bonfantes (2002), page 195.
  55. J.N. Adams page 163.
  56. Nancy Thomson de Grummond (2006) Etruscan Myth, Sacred History, and Legend. U.Penn. Museum p.26
  57. van der Meer, B.Liber linteus zagrabiensis. The Linen Book of Zagreb. A Comment on the Longest Etruscan Text. Louvain/Dudley, MA 2007 passim
  58. Bonfante 2000 page 60.
  59. Schmitz, Leonhard (1870). "Manes". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. ancientlibrary.com. Archived from the original on 2008-06-06.
  60. de Grummond, pages 220–225.
  61. The Bonfantes (2002), page 178.
  62. Nancy Thomson de Grummond (2006) Etruscan Myth, Sacred History, and Legend. U.Penn. Museum p.37
  63. Nancy Thomson de Grummond (2006) Etruscan Myth, Sacred History, and Legend. U.Penn. Museum p.29
  64. Nancy Thomson de Grummond (2006) Etruscan Myth, Sacred History, and Legend. U.Penn. Museum p.37-38
  65. Swaddling & Bonfante page 42.
  66. The Walters Art Museum

References
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