Gojong of Korea

In the 19th century, tensions mounted between Qing China and Imperial Japan, culminating in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894–1895. Much of this war was fought on the Korean peninsula. Japan, having acquired Western military technology after the Meiji Restoration, secured a victory against Joseon forces in Ganghwa Island, forcing Joseon to sign the Treaty of Ganghwa in 1876. Japan encroached upon Korean territory in search of fish, iron ore, and other natural resources. It also established a strong economic presence in the peninsula, heralding the beginning of Japanese Imperial expansion in East Asia. These events were the roots of Gojong's antipathy to the Japanese Empire.[1]

The Treaty of Ganghwa became the first unequal treaty signed between Korea and a foreign country; it gave extraterritorial rights to Japanese citizens in Korea and forced the Korean government to open three ports, Busan, Incheon, and Wonsan, to Japanese and foreign trade. With the signing of such a lopsided treaty, Korea became easy prey for competing imperialistic powers, paving the way for Korea's annexation by Japan.[8]

King Gojong began to rely on a new paid army (byeolgigun) of soldiers equipped with rifles. These new armies were requested by the Gaehwa Party and was supervised by Yun Ung-nyeol.[9] In contrast to the well-armed army, the old army had not received a salary for 13 months. The tattered army was finally paid one month's salary. Enraged, the old army sparked a riot, and the Daewongun seized power.[10] When the Imo Incident happened, Queen Min requested the Qing Empire for military support. On 27 June 1882, the Qing deployed about 3,000 soldiers in Seoul. They kidnapped the Daewongun on 7 July 1882, which led the Min family to regain political power.[11]

During the Imo incident when Queen Min was taking refuge in her relative's villa, Lady Seon-yeong of the Yeongwol Eom clan showed extreme devotion towards King Gojong. He rewarded her fealty by promoting her to the rank of Jimil Sanggung (5th senior rank of Women of the Internal Court).[12]

On 4 December 1884, five revolutionaries attempted a coup d'état by leading a small anti-old minister army to detain King Gojong and Queen Min. These revolutionaries tried to remove the Qing army from Korea.[13] The Gapsin Coup failed after 3 days. Some of its leaders, including Kim Okgyun, fled to Japan, and others were executed.

Widespread poverty presented significant challenges to the 19th century Joseon Dynasty. Starvation was rampant, and much of the populace lived in run-down shanties lined along dirt roads.[14] Famine, poverty, crushing taxes, and corruption among the ruling class, led to many notable peasant revolts in the 19th century.

In 1894, the Donghak Peasant Revolution took hold as an anti-government, anti-yangban, and anti-foreign campaign. One leading cause of the revolution was the tax system implemented by Queen Min. Gojong asked for the assistance from the Chinese and Japanese to crush the revolution. Yi Jun-yong and others coordinated with peasants to assassinate Gojong. However, the plot was leaked and the revolution failed.[1] Although the revolution ultimately failed, many of the peasants' grievances were later addressed with the Gabo Reform.

One of the biggest reforms in 1894 was abolishing the slave (nobi) system, which had existed as far back as the Gojoseon period.[15]

In 1895, Empress Myeongseong was assassinated by Japanese agents. The Japanese minister to Korea, Miura Gorō, orchestrated the plot against her. A group of Japanese agents entered Gyeongbokgung in Seoul, which was under guard by Korean troops sympathetic to the Japanese, and the queen was killed in the palace. The queen had attempted to counter Japanese interference in Korea. She and her court were pro-Russian in the immediate run-up to the assassination.[16]

In 1895 Japan won the First Sino-Japanese War, expanding its influence over the Korean government. The Gabo reforms and the assassination of the queen stirred controversy in Korea, fomenting Korean anti-Japanese sentiment. Gojong's antipathy toward the Japanese intensified, and he turned to Russia as an ally by signing Russia–Korea Treaty of 1884. He sent many emissaries to Russian Empire.[1]

Some Confucian scholars, as well as peasants, formed over 60 successive righteous armies to fight for Korean freedom. These armies were preceded by the Donghak movement and succeeded by various Korean independence movements.

Pro-Japanese government grew, while anti-Japanese politicians were either killed or fled for their survival after the Chun Sang Door Incident in 1895. Gojong perceived the need for refuge.[17]

On 11 February 1896, King Gojong and his crown prince fled from the Gyeongbokgung to the Russian legation in Seoul,[18] from which they governed for about one year, an event known as Gojong's internal exile to the Russian legation. Because of staying in the Russian legation many concessions of Korea were taken by Russia.[1] Gojong sent Min Young-hwan to the coronation of Nicholas II of Russia.[19] Min returned to Korea in October 1896 with Russian Army instructors. These instructors were able to train guards which enabled Gojong to return to palace in February 1897.[20]

On 13 October 1897, Gojong declared himself Emperor of Korea in a ceremony at the newly constructed altar Hwangudan.[1] The name of the state was also changed to the Great Korean Empire,[21] and a new era name Gwangmu (광무; 光武; lit. shining and martial) was declared. This was a symbolic gesture to mark the end of Qing's suzerainty over Korea.[1] That same day, Gojong appointed Sunjong as the Imperial Crown Prince.[22]

When the Daewongun died in 1898, Emperor Gwangmu refused to attend the funeral of his father because of their poor relationship. But it was also reported that the emperor's cries could be heard when he looked over the palace wall.[23][24]

On 17 August 1899, Gojong enacted the Constitution of the Korean Empire, which granted him absolute power.[25] Despite this, Gojong still entertained the possibility of establishing a constitutional monarchy. He discussed proposals proposed by the reformist Independence Club and Gaehwa Party. However, his reforms were seen as insufficient by members of the Independence Club, which angered them. After rumors emerged, possibly spread by conservative politicians, that the Independence Club planned to abolish the empire and proclaim a republic, Gojong abolished them instead.[26]

Gojong was subjected to many assassination or abdication attempts. First in July 1898, Ahn Gyeong-su, the Minister of Military tried to abdicate Gojong.[1] Ahn was executed for conspiracy on 28 May 1900.[27] Second, on 12 September 1898, Kim Hong-rok tried to assassinate Gojong with by instilling poison in Gojong's coffee.[28] In 1904, some Korean students in Japan tried to abdicate Gojong and make Prince Imperial Ui the emperor.[29]

Portrait of Gojong wearing Tongcheonggwan and Gangsapo

Gojong and the Crown Prince Sunjong with their Pickelhaube

Gojong was acutely aware of Korea's, and especially its army's, need to modernize. Min Young-hwan brought on Russian instructors that were tasked with modernizing the army. Gojong was pleased with their work. In March 1898, the Russian instructors departed, and Gojong ordered the Ministry of Military to take over. By the request of the Minister of Military, Yi Jong-geon, a military academy was established in April 1898.[30] In order to command both the army and navy, Gojong appointed himself as the Grand Field Marshal of the Imperial Korean Armed Forces and the Crown Prince as Field Marshal on 29 June 1898.[31]

On 2 July 1898, Gojong assumed full control over the army.[30] A Board of Marshals was established on 1 August 1899,[32] which Gojong used to further his control.[33] In 1899, he bought weapons from various countries and sent many cadets to Imperial Japanese Army Academy. Meanwhile, he continued expanding the military. By July 1900, there were 17,000 men of the Jinwidae. In 1901, about 44 percent of the Empire's total revenue was used for the military.[30]

Gojong also attempted to establish ties with other countries. For example, Yi Han-eung was sent to London in 1901 as the acting diplomatic minister to the United Kingdom. But Great Britain rebuffed Yi's overtures, and established the Anglo-Japanese Alliance in 1902. Yi killed himself in protest in May 1905.[34]