Horses in Sudan

Magi from a nativity scene in Faras, Nubia. Note the elaborate horse harness.

Rizeigat warrior

Equestrian practices are probably very old on Sudanese territory, as evidenced by the discovery of the remains of a Nubian chariot horse, dated to around 1,000 BC.[1] According to Mamoun A. Mekki, general secretary of the Sudanese Equestrian Federation in 1994, the horse was in fact introduced by the Nubians around 2000 BC.[2] Contrary to widespread belief, it was certainly present on the territory of Sudan well before the arrival of nomadic Muslim tribes from the Sahara.[3]^: 367 The use of cavalry seems historically rare, infantry being preferred.[3]

The horse constitutes a cultural heritage, particularly in the Darfur region, among the Missairiyah and the Rizeigat.[4] It appears that horse racing has been practiced in Darfur since 16th century.[5] During the 20th century, a policy of improving breeding was put in place[6] with the support of local tribes, who participated in the establishment of Thoroughbreds, particularly in the Khartoum region.[4] The English imported horse racing in 1929, and built a racecourse in Khartoum, at the confluence of the Blue Nile and the White Nile.[2] They imported other equestrian practices then unknown to the Sudanese, such as polo and tent pegging. While they had no intention of teaching equestrian sport to the Sudanese, this practice survived the colonial period, equestrian sport being in full development during the country's independence in 1956.[2] According to Ahmed Mekki Abdu, first Governor of Khartoum after independence, the English re-sold their horses to the Sudanese before their departure, allowing the maintenance of large stables sometimes numbering dozens of horses.[2]

The veterinary authorities imported Thoroughbreds from England from 1944, with the idea of "improving" the local herd and making Sudan a country exporting horses to Iraq, Egypt, Jordan and Nigeria, whose officials enjoy seeing 's tribal horse shows. A breeding centre was created in Nyala, capable of receiving 10 to 90 mares every day.[4] This centre became the main supplier of racehorses to Khartoum, and imported 400 to 500 of these animals annually until 1974.[4] Arabian horses were also imported at this time.[7] This breeding is established to the detriment of local breeds,[7] although they are better adapted to their biotope.

The environmental and ecological crisis (desertification of Darfur) impacts domestic animals as much as human beings, reducing horse patrols, polo, and racing.[4] In 2004, on the border between Sudan and Chad, mounted militias terrorised the population.[8] Many are Janjawid, pro-Arab government militiamen.[9]

Sudanese Country-Bred in 1969

Sudan has the largest population of domestic livestock (cattle, goats, camels, donkeys, sheep, etc.) in all of Africa, with the domestic donkey being much more present than the horse.[10] Based on figures provided by the Sudanese government in 2009, R. Trevor Wilson estimates, in his study of domestic livestock in Sudan, that there are 784,000 horses in the country in 2009.[10] The Delachaux guide puts forward a figure of around 20,000 horses in Sudan in 2014,[6] the latter seeming unrealistic, in agreement with the numerous errors contained elsewhere in this work.

The original horse type from Sudan is a Barb, quite small, with a light frame.[7] From the 1950s and 1960s, horses from Sudan were crossed with imported Arabian and Thoroughbred breeds.[2] The DAD-IS database lists 5 horse breeds currently or in the past raised in Sudan: the Dongola, the Sudanese, the Tawleed and the Gharkawi.[7] The Delachaux guide includes only two local breeds, the Gharkawi and the Soudanese.[6]^: 413

The Barb horse, originally from North Africa, was sometimes mistaken for Arabians in Europe due to size and Arab-speaking Berber handlers. Notable confusion includes the "Godolphin Arabian," actually a Tunisian Barb, foundational to the Thoroughbred breed.[11] Today, Barbs are bred primarily in Algeria, Morocco, Spain, and southern France, but their numbers decline due to economic challenges. The World Organisation of the Barb Horse aims to preserve the breed. The Barb significantly influenced global racing breeds, following the Arabian.[12] Introduced by Berber invaders in the 8th century, it mixed with Spanish stock to create the highly prized Andalusian.[12] Despite its lesser fame in appearance compared to Arabians, the Barb excelled in stamina, endurance, and training adaptability.[13]

The Dongola horse, hailing from Sudan's Dongola province, is an African riding breed primarily of Barb type, potentially influenced by Arabs in the past. Found in northern Sudan, western Eritrea, and West African nations, it has regional variants like the West African Dongola and the Bahr-el-Ghazal breed in Chad.[7]^: 462 Local West African breeds, deriving from Dongola and Barb cross-breeding, include the Mossi, Yagha, Bandiagara, Songhaq, Djerma, and Nigerian. Known for its convex profile,[14] the Dongola horse is admired for its hardiness and is used for riding, traction, and pack work.[7]^: 461

The Sudanese Country-Bred horse originated in the early 20th century through a government program aimed at improving the breed. Local Barb-type mares, mainly from Dongola and Gharbaui populations, were bred with Arab and Thoroughbred stallions, often at the Nyala stud farm in South Darfur.[15]^: 245 Although the resulting crossbred horses were larger, they lost some of the local qualities, such as hardiness and water endurance. By the 1950s or 1960s, most local horses were affected by this process.[16][17]^: 408 In 1994, their population was around 65,000. The breed's conservation status is currently considered "not at risk," according to FAO in 2007 and the DAD-IS database in 2023.[7]^: 505 These horses are primarily used for riding, with bay being the most common coat colour.[7]^: 221

In the 20th century, colonial breeding policy promoted the importation and then breeding of imported English and Arabian Thoroughbred horses, giving rise to breeds such as the Tawleed, which still races on the Khartoum racecourse. The Tawleed horse is a unique breed originating from Sudan's Khartoum region. Developed through cross-breeding with Thoroughbreds and native Sudan Country-Bred horses, it boasts remarkable strength and endurance.[18] Tawleed horses are known for their sturdiness and the ability to thrive on limited sustenance.[19] Despite being less famous for their appearance, they possess remarkable qualities, including a strong, short-coupled body that lends itself well to various equestrian disciplines, including dressage. Their historical significance extends to influencing the evolution of other breeds, such as the Andalusian and several Western Hemisphere breeds like the American Quarter Horse and Appaloosa.[20]

The Gharbaui horse, originally of Barb type, underwent a government-led "improvement" program in the twentieth century at the Nyala stud farm in South Darfur. Local mares were bred with Arab and Thoroughbred stallions, resulting in larger but less hardy and purebred horses.[16]^: 408[15]^: 245 By the 1950s or 1960s, few remained unaffected by this cross-breeding process. In 1994, their population was estimated at 8000–10000.[16]^: 408[21] The Gharbaui is a small horse, standing around 140–145 cm at the withers, resembling the Barb in many ways, particularly its hardiness and endurance.[21] However, its legs often have poor conformation, and it typically has a convex profile. The breed's coat color is commonly grey but can also be bay or chestnut.[16]^: 408[21]

Like other countries in North Africa and the Middle East, the Khartoum region is hit by epidemics of African horse sickness, which causes high horse mortality. 85% of the Sudanese horses studied were, directly or indirectly, exposed to this virus. Piroplasmosis is also present, with 35.9% of horses and donkeys tested (in 2013) being or having been parasitised.[22] Parasitisation by Babesia caballi and Theileria equi is common (2008).[23]

Working horse

The horse is probably mainly used as a means of transport, traction, and more rarely as a leisure animal.[6] Horse riding is practiced in rural areas of Sudan for transportation purposes.[6] The vast majority of Sudanese horses are used as working animals, with the exception of a minority of sport horses.[6] In addition to its horse racing, Sudan is known for its tent pegging competitions, imported by the British.[4]

The possible historical use of the horse as a pack animal, hunting mount, and source of food is disputed, due to the small number of available sources:[3] it seems technically possible that the ancient Egyptians and Nubians consumed horses, but nothing attests to it.[24]

On the other hand, it is certain that the horse was not used, or only very little, as an agricultural aid.[3] According to researcher Humphrey J. Fisher, of the University of London (1974), traditional festivals and ceremonies seem to constitute the main use of the horse in Sudan, as well as the first vector of transmission of knowledge in terms of horsemanship and horse care.[3] The major limit to equestrian practices seems to lie in the cost and availability of equestrian equipment.[3] There is also a restriction due to a stream of radical Islam, which considers ownership of a horse unacceptable, and the practice of horse riding suspicious.[3]

The use of mounted police to secure the streets at night, inspired by British traditions, continued throughout the 20th century, before disappearing at the start of the following century.[4]

Horse racing

Horse races are still organised in the Khartoum region (source 2014).[6]

Betting is prohibited in horse racing, in accordance with Islamic tradition, but racing has flourished and represents one of the few possible distractions in this country with a high rate of poverty.[2] The racing season takes place from October to June, due to the heat.[2] People suspected of betting despite the ban are regularly arrested.[2] Sudanese jockeys, renowned for their courage and combativeness, are recruited by racing stables in Gulf countries.[2] In 2012, the African Union proposed the organisation of horse races in Nyala, in Darfur, as a factor of cohesion and peace between peoples.[5] Maintaining the races also supports cohesion and morale among the Sudanese population of Khartoum since the secession of South Sudan.[25]

Horse racing in Khartoum, in 2007

Warfare

Further information: Battle of Omdurman, Janjaweed, and Horses in warfare § Sub-Saharan Africa

Fighting and serving the dervishes, 1879-1895

A battlefield in Sudan. Original drawing by Fritz Bergen.

Horses were used for warfare in the central Sudan region since the 9th century, where they were considered "the most precious commodity following the slave."[26] The first conclusive evidence of horses playing a major role in the warfare of West Africa dates to the 11th century when the region was controlled by the Almoravids, a Muslim Berber dynasty.[27]^: 119 During the 13th and 14th centuries, cavalry became an important factor in the area.[28]^: 119 This coincided with the introduction of larger breeds of horse and the widespread adoption of saddles and stirrups.[28]^{: 127–133}

During the 18th and 19th centuries, horses were extensively used in inter-tribal conflicts in Sudan. Their agility and speed made them invaluable assets on the battlefield, allowing for swift manoeuvres and rapid charges. Horses became a common sight in these battles, as various tribes vied for power and territory within the region.[2]

Mounted warfare was a prominent feature of Sudanese military strategies. Horses served as cavalry, offering not only mobility but also the ability to charge into enemy lines with force. Cavalry units were known for their speed and manoeuvrability, making them a formidable presence on the battlefield. They played a crucial role in various campaigns and conflicts, contributing to Sudan's military successes.[29]

Horses held symbolic significance in Sudanese warfare. They were not only tools of combat but also symbols of victory and prestige. Victorious leaders often paraded on horseback, showcasing their authority and triumph. Horses became a source of pride and a representation of power in Sudanese culture. The use of horses in Sudan's military history also extended to trade and exchange. Sudan imported horses from North Africa and the Western Sahara, often exchanging them for slaves. This trade had significant economic and military implications for the region, highlighting the multifaceted role of horses in Sudanese society.[30]

While horses once dominated the battlefield in Sudan, modern conflicts have witnessed changes in military technology and tactics. The role of horses in warfare has evolved, with mechanised vehicles and modern weaponry largely replacing them. Still, organised armed fighters on horseback are occasionally seen. The best-known current examples are the Janjaweed, militia groups seen in the Darfur region of Sudan, who became notorious for their attacks upon unarmed civilian populations in the Darfur conflict.[31] Many nations still maintain small numbers of mounted military units for certain types of patrol and reconnaissance duties in extremely rugged terrain, including the conflict in Afghanistan.[32]

Dancing horses

Sudan's horse culture dates back centuries, with horses being highly prized and associated with wealth and power. Particularly, ethnic groups in the Darfur region, such as the Missairiyah and Rizaigat tribes, have preserved their historic connection with horses, considering them a part of their identity and heritage.[33]

Beyond their role in warfare, horses were essential for agricultural activities and transportation. They aided in ploughing fields and moving goods, contributing significantly to Sudan's agrarian economy. Horses provided the necessary power for these tasks in regions with challenging terrain. Horses have symbolised prestige and authority in Sudanese culture. Only the wealthy and powerful could own horses, and rulers like the Soso king Soumaoro Kanté showcased their authority through impressive cavalries. The use of horses became a symbol of leadership and nobility.[34]

Sudanese culture celebrates horses through various festivals and events. Horse racing, for example, is a popular and vibrant tradition in Sudan. These events not only showcase the speed and agility of horses but also provide opportunities for social gatherings and cultural expression.[3]

The horse is often mentioned in traditional Sudanese poems and songs On the occasion of festivals, particularly weddings, richly harnessed riders accompany the processions.[4] The Sudanese also make numerous references to the important role of the horse in the Koran and Islamic conquests.[2] The horse has always represented a prestigious gift or tribute.[3]