Klon language

Aspiration is sometimes produced with voiceless stops. The voiced labio-velar approximant /w/ is infrequently produced as a voiced bilabial fricative [β] by some speakers.

Some of the consonants have a limited distribution. The voiced velar stop /g/ only occurs syllable initially. The voiced velar nasal /ŋ/ only occurs syllable finally. The voiced palatal stop /ɟ/, which only occurs word-finally, in a limited number of words. Some older speakers use the voiced alveolar stop [d] for /ɟ/. The rhotic trill /r/ and the voiceless alveolar fricative /s/ occur both syllable finally and syllable initially. They occur word initially in only a few lexical items each. Some of these lexical items are clearly borrowings. The voiced labio-velar approximant /w/ and the voiced palatal approximant /j/ do not occur syllable-finally.

The mid-front unrounded vowel /e/ and the open mid back rounded vowel /ɔ/ occur infrequently. Schwa only occurs in unstressed syllables.

Diphthongs occur in both open and closed syllables.

Klon has split-S alignment.[4] The alignment can be considered agentive.[1] In Klon, the only argument of an intransitive clause (S) is sometimes treated the same as an agent-like argument of a transitive clause (S_A=A), and sometimes treated the same as a patient-like argument of a transitive clause (S_O=O).

Whether S patterns with A or with O depends on the properties of the S argument, as well as the lexical class of the verb. In one class of verbs, S is coded like A, in another class of verbs S is treated as O, and in the third class of verbs, S can align with A or O, depending on the agentive properties of the S argument. The first verb class, the one which invariably aligns S as A, is the largest class. Only the third class of verbs exhibits fluid S alignment.

For the third verb class, when S has characteristics of an Actor, it patterns like A. When it has characteristics of an Undergoer, (more specifically, when S is an affected participant, but not a volitional and controlling participant) it patterns like O.

The argument of an intransitive may be realized in several ways. A full NP can be used alone, a full NP can be used in combination with a pronoun, or only a pronoun can be used. In all cases the free pronoun is only used with S_A arguments, and the bound pronoun with S_O arguments. Grammatical relations are not morphologically indicated when arguments are full NPs. Klon has multiple pronominal paradigms. Free pronouns mark A and S_A arguments, while bound pronouns indicate O and S_O arguments.

In example 1 below, the A argument is indicated by the free pronoun ini, while the O argument instead has the bound pronoun g-.

In example 2, the S_O argument is indicated with the bound pronoun n-, and the A argument is represented by the free pronoun na.

In example 3, S_A is indicated by the free pronoun ini.

Anaphoric co-reference

When co-referring A and S_A arguments occur in paratactically conjoined clauses, the argument in the second clause can be either reduced to a pronoun or deleted.

Similarly, co-referring O and S_O arguments which occur in paratactically conjoined clauses allow reduction or deletion of the argument in the second clause.

Word order

The word order of intransitives is SV.

Transitive clauses can have AOV, OAV, or AVO word order. AOV word order disambiguates the A and O arguments when their animacy is equivalent and which argument is which is not otherwise inferrable from context.

Papuan languages generally lack active-passive voice distinctions.[5] Due to the absence of mention of this topic in Baird's grammar, it is assumed that Klon is a typical Papuan language in this regard.

Most verbs can occur in intransitive and transitive constructions. Klon speakers seldom use ditransitive clauses. Only the verb en 'to give' is always ditransitive (trivalent). In en constructions, the Primary Undergoer, the recipient, is indicated by a pronominal prefix on the verb; the Secondary Undergoer, the theme, occurs as a full NP.

Valency-decreasing operations

The reciprocal marker t-/to-/tin-/te- indicates that the Actor and Undergoer within a clause are the same referent. Thus, it makes a divalent verb monovalent. The reciprocal marker can only occur with non-singular Actors.

Noun incorporation also decreases valency in Klon.

Valency-increasing operations

The verbal prefix u- increases valency by adding an Undergoer argument. The possible role of the Undergoer includes those of Patient, Theme, Recipient, or Goal.

In the following example, ebeer 'die' has a single Undergoer NP argument doqom 'grandfather'.

In the next example, the Undergoer argument associated with the verb ebeer 'die' is indicated by a third person pronoun verbal prefix, as well as with a full NP Labgei ong 'this Labgei'.

Example 3 is similar to example 2, except now only the pronominal prefix is used to indicate the Undergoer.

Example 4 is in reference to a story about a grandfather beating his grandchildren if they did not get out of bed early in the morning. The speaker uses the inanimate Undergoer argument haib 'danger', as the reason for dying. Hok 'some', refers to the people who die. The u- prefix is used so that ebeer can take the additional argument haib.

The applicative verbal prefix mi- allows an added Undergoer argument as well, but this Undergoer can only be an Instrument.

These two valency-increasing prefixes cannot co-occur on the same verb.