List of psychoactive plants

This is a list of plant species that, when consumed by humans, are known or suspected to produce psychoactive effects: changes in nervous system function that alter perception, mood, consciousness, cognition or behavior. Many of these plants are used intentionally as psychoactive drugs, for medicinal, religious, and/or recreational purposes. Some have been used ritually as entheogens for millennia.[1][2]

Salvia divinorum, a dissociative hallucinogenic sage

Psychoactive plant phylogeny with active ingredient indicated

The plants are listed according to the specific psychoactive chemical substances they contain; many contain multiple known psychoactive compounds.

Cannabinoids

Cannabis plant

Species of the genus Cannabis, known colloquially as marijuana, including Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica, is a popular psychoactive plant that is often used medically and recreationally. The principal psychoactive substance in Cannabis, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), contains no nitrogen, unlike many (but not all) other psychoactive substances[lower-alpha 1] and is not an indole, tryptamine, phenethylamine, anticholinergic (deliriant) or dissociative drug. THC is just one of more than 100 identified cannabinoid compounds in Cannabis, which also include cannabinol (CBN) and cannabidiol (CBD).

Cannabis plants vary widely, with different strains producing dynamic balances of cannabinoids (THC, CBD, etc.) and yielding markedly different effects. Popular strains are often hybrids of C. sativa and C. indica.

The medicinal effects of cannabis are widely studied, and are active topics of research both at universities and private research firms. Many jurisdictions have laws regulating or prohibiting the cultivation, sale and/or use of medical and recreational cannabis.

Tryptamines

DMT molecule

5-MeO-DMT molecule

Delosperma cooperi flower

Delosperma lydenbergense flower

Delosperma nubigenum

Many of the psychedelic plants contain dimethyltryptamine (DMT), or other tryptamines, which are either snorted (Virola, Yopo snuffs), vaporized, or drunk with MAOIs (Ayahuasca). It cannot simply be eaten as it is not orally active without an MAOI and it needs to be extremely concentrated to be vaporized.

Acanthaceae

Species, Alkaloid content, where given, refers to dried material

Fittonia albivenis, a common ornamental plant from South America.

Aceraceae

Acer saccharinum (silver maple) was found to contain the indole alkaloid gramine (not active and extremely toxic) 0.05% in the leaves, so it is possible that other members of this plant family contain active compounds.[3]

Aizoaceae

Delosperma acuminatum, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
Delosperma cooperi, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
Delosperma ecklonis, DMT[4]
Delosperma esterhuyseniae, DMT[4]
Delosperma hallii, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
Delosperma harazianum, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
Delosperma harazianum
Shibam, DMT[4]
Delosperma hirtum, DMT[4]
Delosperma hallii
aff. litorale
Delosperma lydenbergense, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
Delosperma nubigenum, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
Delosperma pageanum, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
Delosperma pergamentaceum, Traces of DMT[4]
Delosperma tradescantioides, DMT[4]

Apocynaceae

Prestonia amazonica: DMT[5]
Voacanga africana: Iboga alkaloids

Asteraceae

Pilosella officinarum

Erythroxylaceae

Erythroxylum pungens: DMT[6]

Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

Alpina mueller

Acacia angustissima

Acacia-berlandieri flower

Acacia catechu

Acacia confusa

Acacia phlebophylla

Bufotenin molecule

Anadenanthera colubrina

Anadenanthera peregrina

Lespedeza capitata

Codariocalyx motorius

Virola theiodora

Lespedeza bicolor

Mimosa scabrella

Acacia acuminata, Up to 1.5% alkaloids, mainly consisting of dimethyltryptamine in bark & leaf[7] Also, harman, tryptamine, NMT, other alkaloids in leaf.
Acacia alpina, Active principles in leaf[8]
Acaciella angustissima, β-methyl-phenethylamine,[9] NMT and DMT in leaf (1.1-10.2 ppm)[10]
Vachellia aroma, Tryptamine alkaloids.[11] Significant amount of tryptamine in the seeds.[12]
Acacia auriculiformis, 5-MeO-DMT in stem bark[13]
Acacia baileyana, 0.02% tryptamine and β-carbolines, in the leaf, Tetrahydroharman[14]
Acacia beauverdiana, Psychoactive[15] Ash used in Pituri.[16]
Senegalia berlandieri, DMT, phenetylamine, mescaline, nicotine[17]
Senegalia catechu, DMT and other tryptamines in leaf, bark
Vachellia caven, Psychoactive[18]
Senegalia chundra, DMT and other tryptamines in leaf, bark
Acacia colei, DMT[19]
Acacia complanata, 0.3% alkaloids in leaf and stem, almost all N-methyl-tetrahydroharman, with traces of tetrahydroharman, some of tryptamine[20][21][22]
Acacia confusa, DMT & NMT in leaf, stem & bark 0.04% NMT and 0.02% DMT in stem.[8] Also N,N-dimethyltryptamine N-oxide[23]
Vachellia cornigera, Psychoactive,[18] Tryptamines[24] DMT according to C. Rastch.
Acacia cultriformis, Tryptamine, in the leaf, stem[8] and seeds.[12] Phenethylamine in leaf and seeds[12]
Acacia cuthbertsonii, Psychoactive[15]
Acacia decurrens, Psychoactive,[18] but less than 0.02% alkaloids[14]
Acacia delibrata, Psychoactive[15]
Acacia falcata, Psychoactive,[15] but less than 0.02% alkaloids[14] Psychoactive 0.2–0.3% alkaloids
Vachellia farnesiana, Traces of 5-MeO-DMT[25] in fruit. β-methyl-phenethylamine, flower.[26] Ether extracts about 2–6% of the dried leaf mass.[27] Alkaloids are present in the bark[28] and leaves.[29]
Acacia flavescens, Strongly Psychoactive, Bark.
Acacia floribunda, Tryptamine, phenethylamine,[30] in flowers[12] other tryptamines,[31] DMT,tryptamine,NMT 0.3–0.4% phyllodes.[32]
Acacia georginae, Psychoactive,[18] plus deadly toxins
Vachellia horrida, Psychoactive[18]
Acacia implexa, Psychoactive[33]
Mimosa jurema, DMT, NMT
Vachellia karroo, Psychoactive
Senegalia laeta, DMT, in the leaf[8]
Acacia longifolia, 0.2% tryptamine in bark, leaves, some in flowers, phenylethylamine in flowers,[30] 0.2% DMT in plant.[34] Histamine alkaloids.[14]
Acacia sophorae, Tryptamine in leaves, bark[12]
Acacia macradenia, Tryptamine[12]
Acacia maidenii, 0.6% NMT and DMT in about a 2:3 ratio in the stem bark, both present in leaves[8]
Acacia mangium, Psychoactive[18]
Acacia melanoxylon, DMT, in the bark and leaf,[35] but less than 0.02% total alkaloids[14]
Senegalia mellifera, DMT, in the leaf[8]
Vachellia nilotica, DMT, in the leaf[8]
Vachellian ilotica subsp. adstringens, Psychoactive, DMT in the leaf
Acacia neurophylla DMT in bark, Harman in leaf.[36]
Acacia obtusifolia, Tryptamine, DMT, NMT, other tryptamines,[37] 0.4–0.5% in dried bark,0.15–0.2% in leaf, 0.07% in branch tips.[38]
Vachellia oerfota, Less than 0.1% DMT in leaf,[39] NMT
Acacia penninervis, Psychoactive[15]
Acacia phlebophylla, 0.3% DMT in leaf, NMT[8]
Acacia podalyriifolia, Tryptamine in the leaf,[8] 0.5% to 2% DMT in fresh bark, phenethylamine, trace amounts.[30] Although this species is claimed to contain 0.5% to 2% DMT in fresh bark the reference for this is invalid as there is no reference to Acacia Podalyriffolia anywhere in the reference article. Additionally, well known and proven extraction techniques for DMT have failed to produce any DMT or alkaloids from fresh bark or the leaves on multiple sample taken at various seasons. Should DMT actually exist in this species of Acacia then it exists in extremely small amounts and have failed to produce any alkaloids with Acid/Base extraction techniques using HCl/Na(OH)2. On the same note, more academic research is definitely required into the DMT content of this and other Australian Acacia species with proper chemical analysis of sample.
Senegalia polyacantha, DMT in leaf[8] and other tryptamines in leaf, bark
Senegalia polyacantha ssp. campylacantha, Less than 0.2% DMT in leaf, NMT; DMT and other tryptamines in leaf, bark[40]
Senegalia rigidula: Phenethylamine, tryptamine, tyramine, and β-Methylphenethylamine.[41]
Acacia sassa, Psychoactive[18]
Vachellia schaffneri, β-methyl-phenethylamine, Phenethylamine[42]
Senegalia senegal, Less than 0.1% DMT in leaf,[8] NMT, other tryptamines. DMT in plant,[26] DMT in bark.[12]
Vachellia seyal, DMT, in the leaf.[8] Ether extracts about 1–7% of the dried leaf mass.[27]
Vachellia sieberiana, DMT, in the leaf[8]
Acacia simplex, DMT and NMT, in the leaf, stem and trunk bark, 0.81% DMT in bark, MMT[8][43]
Vachellia tortilis, DMT, NMT, and other tryptamines[33]
Acacia vestita, Tryptamine, in the leaf and stem,[8] but less than 0.02% total alkaloids[14]
Acacia victoriae, tryptamines, 5-MeO-alkyltryptamine[12]
List of acacia species having little or no alkaloids in the material sampled:[14]
(0% $\leq$ $\leq$ C $\leq$ $\leq$ 0.02%, Concentration of alkaloids)
- Acacia acinacea
- Acacia baileyana
- Acacia decurrens
- Acacia dealbata
- Acacia mearnsii
- Acacia drummondii
- Acacia elata
- Acacia falcata
- Acacia leprosa
- Acacia linearis
- Acacia melanoxylon
- Acacia pycnantha
- Acacia retinodes
- Acacia saligna
- Acacia stricta
- Acacia verticillata
- Acacia vestita
Pseudalbizzia inundata leaves contain DMT.[18]
Anadenanthera colubrina, Bufotenin, Beans,[44][45] Bufotenin oxide, Beans,[44] N,N-Dimethyltryptamine, Beans,[44][45] pods,[44]
Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil – Bufotenin and Dimethyltryptamine have been isolated from the seeds and seed pods, 5-MeO-DMT from the bark of the stems.[46] The seeds were found to contain 12.4% bufotenine, 0.06% 5-MeO-DMT and 0.06% DMT.[47]
Anadenanthera peregrina,

1,2,3,4-Tetrahydro-6-methoxy-2,9-dimethyl-beta-carboline, Plant,[48] 1,2,3,4-Tetrahydro-6-methoxy-2-methyl-beta-carboline, Plant,[45] 5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine, Bark,[45] 5-Methoxy-N-methyltryptamine, Bark,[45] Bufotenin, plant,[45] beans,[44] Bufotenin N-oxide, Fruit,[45] beans,[44] N,N-Dimethyltryptamine-oxide, Fruit[45][49]

Anadenanthera peregrina var. peregrina, Bufotenine is in the seeds.[50]
Desmanthus illinoensis, 0–0.34% DMT in root bark, highly variable.[51] Also NMT, N-hydroxy-N-methyltryptamine, 2-hydroxy-N-methyltryptamine, and gramine (toxic).[52]
Desmanthus leptolobus, 0.14% DMT in root bark, more reliable than D. illinoensis[51]
Desmodium caudatum[53] (syn. Ohwia caudata), Roots: 0.087% DMT,
Codariocalyx motorius(syn. Desmodium gyrans), DMT, 5-MeO-DMT, leaves, roots
Desmodium racemosum, 5-MeO-DMT
Desmodium triflorum, 0.0004% DMT-N-oxide, roots,[54] less in stems[54] and trace in leaves.[54]
Lespedeza capitata,
Lespedeza bicolor, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT in leaves and roots[55]
Lespedeza bicolor var. japonica, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT in leaves and root bark
Mimosa ophthalmocentra, Dried root: DMT 1.6%, NMT 0.0012% and hordenine 0.0065%[56]
Mimosa scabrella, tryptamine, NMT, DMT and N-methyltetrahydrocarboline in bark[57]
Mimosa somnians, tryptamines and MMT
Mimosa tenuiflora (syn. "Mimosa hostilis"), 0.31-0.57% DMT (dry root bark).[58]
Mimosa verrucosa, DMT[59] in root bark
Mucuna pruriens, the seeds of the plant contain about 3.1–6.1% L-DOPA.[60]
Petalostylis casseoides, 0.4–0.5% tryptamine, DMT, etc. in leaves and stems[55]
Petalostylis labicheoides var. casseoides, DMT in leaves and stems
Phyllodium pulchellum(syn. Desmodium pulchellum), 0.2% 5-MeO-DMT, small quantities of DMT[55] DMT (dominates in seedlings and young plants), 5-MeO-DMT (dominates in mature plant), whole plant, roots, stems, leaves, flowers
Erythrina flabelliformis, other Erythrina species, seeds contain the alkaloids erysodin and erysovin[61]

Subfamily Caesalpinioideae

Petalostylis cassioides: 0.4–0.5% tryptamine, DMT, etc. in leaves and stems[62]
Petalostylis labicheoides, Tryptamines in leaves and stems, MAO's up to 0.5%[63]

Lauraceae

- Nectandra megapotamica, NMT[64]

Malpighiaceae

Diplopterys cabrerana: McKenna et al. (1984) assayed and found the leaves contain 0.17% DMT[65]

Myristicaceae

Horsfieldia superba: 5-MeO-DMT[55] and beta-carbolines[62]
Iryanthera macrophylla: 5-MeO-DMT in bark[55]
Iryanthera ulei: 5-MeO-DMT in bark
Osteophloem platyspermum: DMT, 5-MeO-DMT in bark
Virola calophylla, Leaves 0.149% DMT, leaves 0.006% MMT 5-MeO-DMT in bark[66]
Virola calophylloidea, DMT
Virola carinata, DMT in leaves
Virola cuspidata, DMT[63]
Virola divergens, DMT in leaves
Virola elongata(syn. Virola theiodora), DMT, 5-MeO-DMT in bark, roots, leaves and flowers
Virola melinonii, DMT in bark
Virola multinervia, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT in bark and roots
Virola pavonis, DMT in leaves
Virola peruviana, 5-MeO-DMT, traces of DMT and 5-MeO-tryptamine in bark
Virola rufula, Alkaloids in bark and root, 95% of which is MeO-DMT[67] 0.190% 5-MeO-DMT in bark, 0.135% 5-MeO-DMT in root, 0.092% DMT in leaves.
Virola sebifera, The bark contains 0.065% to 0.25% alkaloids, most of which are DMT and 5-MeO-DMT.[68]
Virola venosa, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT in roots, leaves DMT

Ochnaceae

Testulea gabonensis: 0.2% 5-MeO-DMT, small quantities of DMT,[55] DMT in bark and root bark, NMT

Pandanaceae

Genus Pandanus (Screw Pine): DMT in nuts[55]

Poaceae (Gramineae)

Some Graminae (grass) species contain gramine, which can cause brain damage, other organ damage, central nervous system damage and death in sheep.[69]

Arundo donax, 0.0057% DMT in dried rhizome, no stem, 0.026% bufotenine, 0.0023% 5-MeO-MMT[70]
Phalaris aquatica, 0.0007–0.18% Total alkaloids,[71] 0.100% DMT,[72] 0.022% 5-MeO-DMT,[72] 0.005% 5-OH-DMT[72]
Phalaris arundinacea, 0.0004–0.121% Total alkaloids[71]
Phalaris brachystachys, aerial parts up to 3% total alkaloids, DMT present
Phragmites australis, DMT in roots.

None of the above alkaloids are said to have been found in Phalaris californica, Phalaris canariensis, Phalaris minor and hybrids of P. arundinacea together with P. aquatica.[71]

Polygonaceae

Eriogonum : DMT

Rubiaceae

Psychotria carthagenensis, 0.2% average DMT in dried leaves.[73]
Psychotria colorata, Presence of mu opioid receptor(MOR) agonist and NMDA antagonist: hodgkinsine, psychotridine. Also mentioned in The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications.[74]
Psychotria expansa, DMT[63]
Psychotria forsteriana, DMT[63]
Psychotria insularum, DMT[63]
Psychotria poeppigiana,[75] DMT[63]
Psychotria rostrata, DMT[63]
Psychotria rufipilis, DMT[63]
Psychotria viridis, DMT 0.1–0.61% dried mass.[76]

Rutaceae[77][78]

Dictyoloma incanescens, 5-MeO-DMT in leaves,[67] 0.04% 5-MeO-DMT in bark[55]
Dutaillyea drupacea, > 0.4% 5-MeO-DMT in leaves[33]
Dutaillyea oreophila, 5-MeO-DMT in leaves
Tetradium ruticarpum(syn. Evodia rutaecarpa), 5-MeO-DMT in leaves, fruit and roots
Limonia acidissima, 5-MeO-DMT in stems
Euodia leptococca (formerly Melicope), 0.2% total alkaloids, 0.07% 5-MeO-DMT; 5-MeO-DMT in leaves and stems, also "5-MeO-DMT-Oxide and a beta-carboline"[62]
Pilocarpus organensis, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT in leaves[79] (Might also contain pilocarpine)
Vepris ampody, Up to 0.2% DMT in leaves and branches[55]
Zanthoxylum arborescens, DMT in leaves
Zanthoxylum procerum, DMT in leaves
Citrus limon, DMT, N-Methylated tryptamine derivative in leaves[80][81]
Citrus sinesis,DMT, N-Methylated tryptamine derivative[80][81]
Citrus bergamia,DMT, N-Methylated tryptamine derivative[80][81]
Mandarin orange Traces of N-methylated tryptamine derivative in leaf.[82][81]
Chinotto Tree, N-Methylated tryptamine derivative in leaf[82][81]
Citrus medica, N-Methylated tryptamine derivative in leaf[82][81]

Phenethylamines

Mescaline molecule

DMPEA molecule

Peyote

Species, Alkaloid Content (Fresh) – Alkaloid Content (Dried)

Austrocylindropuntia cylindrica (syn. Opuntia cylindrica),[83] Mescaline[84]
Coryphantha contains various phenethylamine alkaloids including macromerine, coryphanthine, O-methyl-candicine, corypalmine, and N-methyl-corypalmine.[85][86]
Cylindropuntia echinocarpa (syn. Opuntia echinocarpa), Mescaline 0.01%, DMPEA 0.01%, 4-hydroxy-3-5-dimethoxyphenethylamine 0.01%[84]
Cylindropuntia spinosior (syn. Opuntia spinosior),[87] Mescaline 0.00004%, 3-methoxytyramine 0.001%, tyramine 0.002%, 3-4-dimethoxyphenethylamine.[84]
Echinopsis lageniformis (syns Echinopsis scopulicola, Trichocereus bridgesii), Mescaline > 0.025%,[88] also DMPEA < 1%, 3-methoxytyramine < 1%, tyramine < 1%; Mescaline 2%[89]
Echinopsis macrogona (syn. Trichocereus macrogonus), > 0.01–0.05% Mescaline[90]
Echinopsis pachanoi (syn. Trichocereus pachanoi), Mescaline 0.006–0.12%, 0.05% Average;[91] Mescaline 0.01%–2.375%[91]
Echinopsis peruviana (syn. Trichocereus peruvianus), Mescaline 0.0005%–0.12%;[91] Mescaline
Echinopsis spachiana (syn. Trichocereus spachianus), Mescaline;[84] Mescaline[84]
Echinopsis tacaquirensis subsp. taquimbalensis (syn. Trichocereus taquimbalensis),[92] > 0.005–0.025% mescaline[90]
Echinopsis terscheckii (syn. Trichocereus terscheckii, Trichocereus werdemannianus)[93] > 0.005–0.025% Mescaline;[90] mescaline 0.01%–2.375%[91]
Echinopsis valida, 0.025% mescaline[94]
Lophophora williamsii (Peyote), 0.4% Mescaline;[94] 3–6% Mescaline[84]
Opuntia acanthocarpa Mescaline[95]
Opuntia basilaris Mescaline 0.01%, plus 4-hydroxy-3-5-dimethoxyphenethylamine[84]
Pelecyphora aselliformis, mescaline[94]

Beta-carbolines

Harmaline, a Beta-carboline

Harmalol molecule

THH molecule

Apocynum cannabinum

Calycanthus

Koeh

Elaeagnus angustifolia

Festuca arundinacea

Beta-carbolines are "reversible" MAO-A inhibitors. They are found in some plants used to make Ayahuasca. In high doses the harmala alkaloids are somewhat hallucinogenic on their own. β-carboline is a benzodiazepine receptor inverse agonist and can therefore have convulsive, anxiogenic and memory enhancing effects.[96]

Apocynaceae

Amsonia tabernaemontana, Harmine
Aspidosperma exalatum, Beta-carbolines[97]
Aspidosperma polyneuron, Beta-carbolines[97]
Apocynum cannabinum, Harmalol
Ochrosia nakaiana, Harman
Pleiocarpa mutica, Beta-carbolines[97]

Bignoniaceae

Newbouldia laevis, Harman

Calycanthaceae

Calycanthus occidentalis, Harmine

Chenopodiaceae

Hammada leptoclada, Tetrahydroharman, etc.
Kochia scoparia, Harmine, etc.

Combretaceae

Guiera senegalensis, Harman, etc.

Cyperaceae

Carex brevicollis, Harmine, etc.
Carex parva, Beta-carbolines[97]

Elaeagnaceae

Elaeagnus angustifolia, Harman, etc.
Elaeagnus commutata, Beta-carbolines[97]
Elaeagnus hortensis, Tetrahydroharman, etc.
Elaeagnus orientalis, Tetrahydroharman
Elaeagnus spinosa, Tetrahydroharman
Hippophae rhamnoides, Harman, etc.
Shepherdia argentea, Tetrahydroharmol
Shepherdia canadensis, Tetrahydroharmol

Gramineae

Arundo donax, Tetrahydroharman
Festuca arundinacea, Harman, etc.
Lolium perenne, (Perennial Ryegrass), Harman, etc.
Phalaris aquatica, Beta-carbolines[97]
Phalaris arundinacea, Beta-carbolines[97]

Lauraceae

Nectandra megapotamica, Beta-carbolines[97]

Leguminosae

Acacia baileyana, Tetrahydroharman
Acacia complanata, Tetrahydroharman, etc.
Burkea africana, Harman, etc.
Desmodium gangeticum, Beta-carbolines[97]
Desmodium gyrans, Beta-carbolines[97]
Desmodium pulchellum, Harman, etc.
Mucuna pruriens, 6-Methoxy-Harman
Petalostylis labicheoides, Tetrahydroharman; MAO's up to 0.5%[63]
Prosopis nigra, Harman, etc.
Shepherdia pulchellum, Beta-carbolines[97]

Loganiaceae

Strychnos melinoniana, Beta-carbolines[97]
Strychnos usambarensis, Harman[97]

Malpighiaceae

Banisteriopsis argentia, 5-methoxytetrahydroharman, (−)-N(6)-methoxytetrahydroharman, dimethyltryptamine-N(6)-oxide[9]
Banisteriopsis caapi, Harmine 0.31–0.84%,[98] tetrahydroharmine, telepathine, dihydroshihunine,[99] 5-MeO-DMT in bark[100]
Banisteriopsis inebrians, Beta-carbolines[97]
Banisteriopsis lutea, Harmine, telepathine[9]
Banisteriopsis metallicolor, Harmine, telepathine[9]
Banisteriopsis muricata Harmine up to 6%, harmaline up to 4%, plus DMT[101]
Diplopterys cabrerana, Beta-carbolines[97]
Cabi pratensis, Beta-carbolines[97]
Callaeum antifebrile(syn. Cabi paraensis), Harmine
Tetrapterys methystica(syn. Tetrapteris methystica), Harmine[102]

Myristicaceae

Gymnacranthera paniculata, Beta-carbolines[97]
Horsfieldia superba Beta-carbolines[62]
Virola cuspidata, 6-Methoxy-Harman
Virola rufula, Beta-carbolines[97]
Virola theiodora, Beta-carbolines[97]

Ochnaceae

Testulea gabonensis, Beta-carbolines[97]

Palmae

Plectocomiopsis geminiflora, Beta-carbolines[97]

Papaveraceae

Meconopsis horridula, Beta-carbolines[97]
Meconopsis napaulensis, Beta-carbolines[97]
Meconopsis paniculata, Beta-carbolines[97]
Meconopsis robusta, Beta-carbolines[97]
Meconopsis rudis, Beta-carbolines[97]
Papaver rhoeas, Beta-carbolines[97]

Passifloraceae

Passiflora actinia, Harman
Passiflora alata, Harman
Passiflora alba, Harman
Passiflora bryonoides, Harman
Passiflora caerulea, Harman
Passiflora capsularis, Harman
Passiflora decaisneana, Harman
Passiflora edulis, Harman, 0–7001 ppm[26] in fruit
Passiflora eichleriana, Harman

Badea

Passiflora foetida, Harman
Passiflora incarnata (with bee), Harmine, Harmaline, Harman, etc. 0.03%.[103] Alkaloids in rind of fruit 0.25%[103]
Passiflora quadrangularis, Harman
Passiflora ruberosa, Harman
Passiflora subpeltata, Harman
Passiflora warmingii, Harman

Polygonaceae

Calligonum minimum, Beta-carbolines[97]
Leptactinia densiflora, Leptaflorine, etc.
Ophiorrhiza japonica, Harman
Pauridiantha callicarpoides, Harman
Pauridiantha dewevrei, Harman
Pauridiantha lyalli, Harman
Pauridiantha viridiflora, Harman
Simira klugei, Harman
Simira rubra, Harman

Rubiaceae

Borreria verticillata, Beta-carbolines[97]
Leptactinia densiflora, Beta-carbolines[97]
Nauclea diderrichii, Beta-carbolines[97]
Ophiorrhiza japonica, Beta-carbolines[97]
Pauridiantha callicarpoides, Beta-carbolines[97]
Pauridiantha dewevrei, Beta-carbolines[97]
Pauridiantha yalli, Beta-carbolines[97]
Pauridiantha viridiflora, Beta-carbolines[97]
Pavetta lanceolata, Beta-carbolines[97]
Psychotria carthagenensis, Beta-carbolines[97]
Psychotria viridis, Beta-carbolines[97]
Simira klugei, Beta-carbolines[97]
Simira rubra, Beta-carbolines[97]
Uncaria attenuata, Beta-carbolines[97]
Uncaria canescens, Beta-carbolines[97]
Uncaria orientalis, Beta-carbolines[97]

Rutaceae

Tetradium (syn. Evodia) species: Some contain carbolines
Euodia leptococca Beta-carboline[62]
Araliopsis tabouensis, Beta-carbolines[97]
Flindersia laevicarpa, Beta-carbolines[97]
Xanthoxylum rhetsa, Beta-carbolines[97]

Sapotaceae

Chrysophyllum lacourtianum, Norharman etc.
Scutellaria???
Scutellaria nana???

Simaroubaceae

Ailanthus malabarica, Beta-carbolines.[97] See also Nag Champa.
Perriera madagascariensis, Beta-carbolines[97]
Picrasma ailanthoides, Beta-carbolines[97]
Picrasma crenata, Beta-carbolines[97]
Picrasma excelsa, Beta-carbolines[97]
Picrasma javanica, Beta-carbolines[97]

Solanaceae

Vestia foetida, (Syn V. lycioides) Beta-carbolines[97]

Symplocaceae

Symplocos racemosa, Harman

Tiliaceae

Grewia mollis, Beta-carbolines[97]

Zygophyllaceae

Fagonia cretica, Harman
Nitraria schoberi, Beta-carbolines[97]
Peganum harmala, (Syrian Rue), The seeds contain about 2–6% alkaloids, most of which is harmaline.[104] Peganum harmala is also an abortifacient.
Peganum nigellastrum, Harmine[105]
Tribulus terrestris, Harman
Zygophyllum fabago, Harman, harmine

Opiates

Opiates v opioids with different major subclassifications indicated

Opiates are the natural products of many plants, the most famous and historically relevant of which is Papaver somniferum. Opiates are defined as natural products (or their esters and salts that revert to the natural product in the human body), whereas opioids are defined as semi-synthetic or fully synthetic compounds that trigger the Opioid receptor of the mu sub-type. Other opiate receptors, such as kappa- and delta-opiate receptors are part of this system but do not cause the characteristic behavioral depression and analgesia which is mostly mediated through the mu-opiate receptor.

An opiate, in classical pharmacology, is a substance derived from opium. In more modern usage, the term opioid is used to designate all substances, both natural and synthetic, that bind to opioid receptors in the brain (including antagonists). Opiates are alkaloid compounds naturally found in the Papaver somniferum plant (opium poppy). The psychoactive compounds found in the opium plant include morphine, codeine, and thebaine. Opiates have long been used for a variety of medical conditions with evidence of opiate trade and use for pain relief as early as the eighth century AD. Opiates are considered drugs with moderate to high abuse potential and are listed on various "Substance-Control Schedules" under the Uniform Controlled Substances Act of the United States of America.

In 2014, between 13 and 20 million people used opiates recreationally (0.3% to 0.4% of the global population between the ages of 15 and 65). According to the CDC, from this population, there were 47,000 deaths, with a total of 500,000 deaths from 2000 to 2014. In 2016, the World Health Organization reported that 27 million people suffer from Opioid use disorder. They also reported that in 2015, 450,000 people died as a result of drug use, with between a third and a half of that number being attributed to opioids.

Papaver somniferum

Mitragyna speciosa

Mitragynine Skeletal Structure

Picralima nitida

Akuammicine[106]
Pericine[107] It may also have convulsant effects.[108]

Pericine Skeletal Structure

Hodgkinsine Skeletal Structure

Akuammicine Skeletal Structure

Psychotria colorata

Hodgkinsine[109][110]

Aspidosperma spp.

Akuammicine[111]

Plants containing other psychoactive substances

Plants containing other psychoactive substances
Substance(s)	Plant	Comments
Asarone	Acorus calamus	Toxic.
Yohimbine	Alchornea floribunda	α₂-adrenergic receptor antagonist.
Arecoline, Arecaidine	Areca catechu	GABA uptake inhibitor,[112][113] stimulant.[114]
Protopine	Argemone mexicana	Used by Chinese residents of Mexico during the early 20th century as a legal substitute for opium and currently smoked as a marijuana substitute.
Ergine	Argyreia nervosa (Hawaiian Baby Woodrose)	Seeds contain ergine (also known as LSA), often 50-150X the amounts found in Ipomoea violacea. LSA is a hallucinogen.[115]
Thujone	Artemisia absinthium	Also called "wormwood". GABA receptor antagonist.[116]
Quinoline & Aporphine alkaloids	Asimina triloba (Paw Paw)	Identical alkaloid to morphine.[117]
Tropane alkaloids (scopolamine, atropine, hyoscyamine)	Atropa belladonna	Commonly known as 'deadly nightshade'. An anticholinergic deliriant.[118]
Tropane alkaloids (scopolamine, atropine, and hyoscyamine)	Brugmansia	Commonly known as 'angel's trumpets'. An anticholinergic deliriant.[118]
Unknown	Calea zacatechichi	Produces vivid dreams after smoking. It is also employed by the Chontal people as a medicinal herb against gastrointestinal disorders, and is used as an appetizer, cathartic anti-dysentery remedy, and as a fever-reducing agent. Its psychedelic properties do not become apparent until the user is asleep. Reports describe rituals that involve drinking it as a tea to induce divinatory or lucid dreams due to its properties as an oneirogen.[119]
Caffeine	Camellia sinensis	Tea leaves, tea, native to Asia.
Cathinone	Catha edulis	Khat, commonly chewed, produces a stimulant effect.[120]
Vincristine	Catharanthus roseus	Catharanthus roseus is (perhaps unpleasantly) "hallucinogenic."[121]
Unknown	Cestrum nocturnum	Commonly referred to as 'night-blooming jasmine', 'lady of the night', and 'poisonberry'. It has an unknown mechanism of action.
Caffeine	Coffea arabica	Coffee beans, coffee, native to Africa.[122]
Caffeine	Cola	Cola or kola nut, traditional additive to cola, native to Africa.
(Unknown)	Coleus	Unknown
Bulbocapnine	Corydalis solida, cava	Bulbocapnine, Nantenine, Tetrahydropalmatine
Tropane alkaloids (Scopolamine, Atropine)	Datura	Also known as 'thorn apple', 'devil's trumpets', 'loco weed', and 'Jimson weed'. Scopolamine and Atropine are both anticholinergics[123][124] which produce hallucinogenic and deliriant effects. It has an extensive history of being used recreationally.[125]
Cytisine	Dermatophyllum	Nicotine-like effects. partial agonist of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs).[126]
Unknown	Desfontainia spinosa	Causes visions.[127]
Nicotine	Duboisia hopwoodii	Pituri
Unknown	Entada rheedii	African dream herb.
Ephedrine	Ephedra sinica	Ephedra
Cocaine	Erythroxylum coca	Coca. Widely used illegal stimulant, produces hallucination in overdose, native to South America.
Unknown	Fittonia albivenis	Nerve or mosaic plant, said to produce vision of eyeballs
Himbacine	Galbulimima belgraveana	Galbulimima belgraveana is rich in alkaloids and twenty-eight alkaloids have been isolated including himbacine.
Glaucine	Glaucium flavum	Hallucinogenic effects.[128]
Possibly Cryogenine	Heimia myrtifolia	Auditory
Possibly Cryogenine	Heimia salicifolia	Auditory[129]
Lobeline, Nicotine	Hippobroma longiflora	Star of Bethlehem
Hyperforin	Hypericum perforatum	Saint John's wort
Tropane alkaloids	Hyoscyamus	Henbane
Caffeine, Theobromine, Dimethylxanthines	Ilex guayusa	Ilex guayusa is used as an additive to some versions of Ayahuasca. According to the Ecuadorian indigenous, it is also slightly hallucinogenic on its own, when drunk in high enough quantities.
Ergine	Ipomoea tricolor & Ipomoea violacea	Ergine in seeds; up to 0.12% total[130] Produces psychedelic effects.
Unknown	Justicia pectoralis	Unknown
Lactucarium	Lactuca virosa	Lactucarium
Lagochilin	Lagochilus inebrians	Lagochilin is thought to be responsible for the sedative, hypotensive and hemostatic effects of this plant.
Pukateine	Laurelia novae-zelandiae	Pukateine
Unknown	Rollinia mucosa	Rollinia mucosa is said to be a narcotic.[117]
Leonurine	Leonotis leonurus	Both leaves and flowers (where most concentrated) contain Leonurine. (Effects reminiscent of marijuana)
Nicotine[131]	Leucas aspera	Nicotine
Leonurine	Leonotis nepetifolia	Both leaves and flowers (where most concentrated) contain Leonurine and several compounds. (Effects reminiscent of marijuana)[132]
Lobeline	Lobelia inflata	Indian tobacco
Unknown	Magnolia virginiana	[133]
Tropane alkaloids (scopolamine, atropine, and hyoscyamine)	Mandragora officinarum	Mandrake has deliriant and anticholinergic properties.[118]
Ergine	Some Mirabilis spp.	Possibly contains ergine, a hallucinogen.
Mitragynine, Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl	Mitragyna speciosa	Usually referred to as kratom. Has opioid-like and stimulant properties.[134]
Myristicin	Myristica fragrans	Nutmeg
Aporphine	Nelumbo nucifera	Sacred lotus
Nepetalactone	Nepeta cataria	Catnip
Nicotine	Nicotiana tabacum	Tobacco. Can cause hallucinations in very large doses.
Aporphine, Apomorphine	Nymphaea caerulea	Blue lotus or lily. Recent studies have shown Nymphaea caerulea to have psychedelic properties, and may have been used as a sacrament in ancient Egypt and certain ancient South American cultures. Dosages of 5 to 10 grams of the flowers induces slight stimulation, a shift in thought processes, enhanced visual perception, and mild closed-eye visuals.[135] Nymphaea caerulea is related to, and possesses similar activity as Nelumbo nucifera, the Sacred Lotus. Both Nymphaea caerulea and Nelumbo nucifera contain the alkaloids nuciferine and apomorphine, which have been recently isolated by independent labs. These psychoactive effects make Nymphaea caerulea a likely candidate (among several) for the lotus plant eaten by the mythical Lotophagi in Homer's Odyssey. Used in aromatherapy, Nymphaea caerulea is purported to have a "divine" essence, bringing euphoria, heightened awareness and tranquility. Other sources cite anti-spasmodic and sedative, purifying and calming properties.
Ginsenosides	Panax	Ginseng
Morphine	Papaver somniferum	Opium. Widely used analgesic, native to the Old World.[136]
Unknown	Phytolacca americana	Narcotic and toxic when the root is consumed.[117]
Yohimbine	Pausinystalia johimbe	α₂-adrenergic receptor antagonist.
Unknown	Pedicularis densiflora	Indian warrior
Kavalactones	Piper methysticum	An anxiolytic[137] and hypnotic.[138] Often advertised as a 'healthier' alternative to alcohol.
Ergine	Rivea corymbosa	Seeds contain ergine, lysergol, and turbicoryn; lysergic acid alkaloids up to 0.03%[139] Has psychedelic properties.
Salvinorin A	Salvia divinorum	Salvinorin A, 0.89–3.87 mg/g, also Salvinorin B and Salvinorin C[140]
Mesembrine	Sceletium tortuosum	Kanna[141][142]
Baicalein	Scutellaria	Known commonly as 'skullcaps'. Baicalein is a positive allosteric modulator of GABA_A receptor.[143]
Unknown	Silene capensis	Produces vivid dreams after smoking.[144]
Unknown	Tagetes lucida	Anethole, Chavicol, Coumarin, Estragole, Isorhamnetin, Methyleugenol, Quercitin
Ibogaine	Tabernanthe iboga	Ibogaine in root bark. Produces psychedelic and a dissociative effects.[145][146]
Ibogaine	Tabernanthe orientalis	Ibogaine in root leaves. Produces psychedelic and a dissociative effects.[145][146]
Voacangine, Ibogaine	Tabernaemontana divaricata	Is a psychedelic and a dissociative.[146]
Ibogaine	Tabernanthe pubescens	Is a psychedelic and a dissociative. Contains ibogaine and similar alkaloids.[145][146]
Ibogaine	Tabernaemontana sp.	Is a psychedelic and a dissociative.[145][146]
Theobromine	Theobroma cacao	Cocoa or cacao bean, chocolate, native to the Americas
Ibogaine	Trachelospermum jasminoides	Exhibits psychedelic and dissociative effects. Contains ibogaine, coronaridine, voacangine, apparicine, conoflorine, and 19-epi-voacangarine.[147][148]
Valerenic acid	Valeriana officinalis	Possible sedative and anxiolytic effects. Valerenic acid is GABA_A receptor positive allosteric modulator,[149] and a 5-HT_5A receptor partial agonist.[150]
Vincamine	Vinca minor	Vincamine.[151]
Voacangine	Voacanga africana	Voacangine is similar in structure to ibogaine. It inhibits AChE.[152][153]
Dendrobine[154]	Dendrobium nobile	Also contains phenanthrenes and dendrobine related alkaloids.
Possibly Genistein and Apigenin	Zornia latifolia	Zornia latifolia is sometimes combined with synthetic cannabis. It may produce similar effects to cannabis.[155][156] It is nicknamed Maconha brava because locals use it as a cannabis substitute.

Notes

Other psychoactive compounds without nitrogen atoms include kavalactones and salvinorins, known from kava and Salvia divinorum, respectively.

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Bibliography

Al Zarouni, Yousif (2015). The Effects of Khat (Catha Edulis). London: Yousif Al Zarouni.

External links

Descriptions of psychoactive Cacti. Lycaeum Visionary Cactus Guide
Erowid Tryptamine FAQ – More Plants Containing Tryptamines
John Stephen Glasby, Dictionary of Plants Containing Secondary Metabolites, Published by CRC Press
Golden Guide to Hallucinogenic Plants
Hallucinogens on the Internet: A Vast New Source of Underground Drug Information John H. Halpern, M.D. and Harrison G. Pope, Jr., M.D.
Chemical Investigations of the Alkaloids from the Plants of the Family Elaeocarpaceae – Peter L. Katavic, Chemical Investigations of the Alkaloids From the Plants Of The Family Elaeocarpaceae, School of Science/Natural Product Discovery (NPD), Faculty of Science, Griffith University
Alexander T. Shulgin, Psychotomimetic Drugs: Structure-Activity Relationships
UNODC The plant kingdom and hallucinogens (part II)
UNODC The plant kingdom and hallucinogens (part III)
Virola – Dried Herbarium Specimens
Virola Species Pictures – USGS
Desmanthus illinoensis – USDA
Psychedelic Reader (Google Books)

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