Slovakia in the Roman era

After the creation of the fortified limes on the Danube river, the Roman Empire tried to expand in central Europe, mainly during the emperor Marcus Aurelius's rule in the second century.

It was an initiative that resulted in an ephemeral conquest of the Germanic tribes living in present-day western Slovakia, the Quadi and the Marcomanni, during the so-called Marcomannic Wars.

Under Augustus, the Romans and their armies initially occupied only a thin strip of the right bank of the Danube and a very small part of south-western Slovakia (Celemantia, Gerulata, Devín Castle). Tiberius wanted to conquer all Germania up to the Elbe river and in 6 AD dispatched a military expedition from the fort of Carnuntum to Mušov and beyond,[4] but was forced to stop the conquest because of a revolt in Pannonia.

Only in 174 AD did the emperor Marcus Aurelius penetrate deeper into the river valleys of the Váh, Nitra and Hron, where there are some Roman marching camps like Laugaricio.[5] On the banks of the Hron he wrote his philosophical work Meditations[6] The small Roman forts of Zavod and Suchohrad on the Morava river show an intention of penetrating toward northern Bohemia-Moravia[7] and the Oder river (and perhaps southern Poland [8]).

The latest archaeological discoveries which have located new Roman enclosures in the surroundings of Brno led to the conclusion that the advance of Roman troops from Carnuntum could have run further to the north-east, into the region of the Polish-Slovak border. Indeed, recent archaeological excavations and aerial surveying have shown further locations in northeast Moravia: three temporary Roman camps (possibly connected to the Laugaricio fort) situated in the foreland of the so-called Moravian Gate (Olomouc-Neředín, Hulín-Pravčice, Osek) have been partly corroborated, the former two clearly by digging.[9]

Marcus Aurelius wanted to create a new Roman province called Marcomannia in those conquered territories, but his death put an end to the project. His successors abandoned these territories, but – with the exception of Valentinian I – maintained a relatively friendly relationship with the barbarians living there (who enjoyed a degree of "cultural Romanization" that can be seen in some buildings in present-day Bratislava Region in Stupava[10]).

Indeed, the Romanization of the barbarian population continued into the late Roman period (181-380 AD). Many Roman buildings (with plenty of trade evidence of Roman civilization) appeared on the territory of south-western Slovakia (Dúbravka, Cífer - Pác, Veľký Kýr[11]) in the relatively peaceful period of the 3rd and 4th centuries. These were probably residences of the pro-Roman Quadian (and maybe Marcomannic) aristocracy.

Romans in the late fourth century were able to bring Christianity into the area: the Germanic population of the Marcomanni converted when Fritigil, their queen, met a Christian traveller from the Roman Empire shortly before 397 AD. He talked to her of Ambrose, the formidable bishop of Milan (Italy). Impressed by what she heard, the queen converted to Christianity.[12] In the Roman ruins of Devín Castle, the first Christian church located north of the Danube has been identified, probably built in the early fifth century.

A few years later Attila devastated the area and started the mass migrations that destroyed the Western Roman Empire. Meanwhile, the area was beginning to be occupied by Slavic tribes.

Indeed, the first written source suggesting that Slavic tribes established themselves in what is now Slovakia is connected to the migration of the Germanic Heruli from the Middle Danube region towards Scandinavia in 512.[13] In that year, according to Procopius, they first passed "through the land of the Slavs", most probably along the river Morava.[14] A cluster of archaeological sites in the valleys of the rivers Morava, Váh and Hron also suggests that at the latest the earliest Slavic settlements appeared in the territory around 500 AD.[15] They are characterized by vessels similar to those of the "Mogiła" group of southern Poland and having analogies in the "Korchak" pottery of Ukraine.[16]

In those same years the Roman presence disappeared from the area of Danubian limes, but there is a remote possibility that Romans and those early Slovak tribes interacted commercially.

Extent of the Roman Empire under Augustus. The yellow legend represents the extent of the Republic in 31 BC, the shades of green represent gradually conquered territories under the reign of Augustus, and pink areas on the map represent client states.

The reign of Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) began a long period known as the Pax Romana, or Roman peace. Despite continuous wars on the frontiers, and one year-long civil war over the imperial succession, the Mediterranean world remained at peace for more than two centuries. Augustus enlarged the empire dramatically, annexing Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, and Raetia, expanded possessions in Africa, and completed the conquest of Hispania. By the end of his reign, the armies of Augustus had conquered the Alpine regions of Raetia and Noricum (modern Switzerland, Bavaria, Austria, Slovenia), Illyricum and Pannonia (modern Albania, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, etc.).[17]

The Romans and their armies occupied a narrow strip of the right bank of the Danube and a very small part of south-western Slovakia (Celemantia, Gerulata, Devín Castle). Augustus's successor Tiberius (14 AD - 37 AD) wanted to conquer all Germania up to the Elbe river and in 6 AD started a military expedition from the fort of Carnuntum to Mušov and beyond.[18] However, he was forced to abandon the conquest because of a revolt in Pannonia.[19]

The expanding Roman Empire established and maintained a series of outposts around and just north of the Danube. The largest of these were Carnuntum, whose remains are on the main road halfway between Vienna and Bratislava, and Brigetio (present-day Szőny at the Slovak-Hungarian border). The Romans supported the client kingdom of the Quadi, a Germanic tribe, to maintain peace in the Middle Danube area.[20] The Marcomanni were another Germanic tribe said by Tacitus to "stand first in strength and renown".[21] Maroboduus, who ruled in the first quarter of the first century AD, was a powerful ruler with an extensive empire based on modern-day Bohemia that included many smaller tribes. He was fully independent of Rome.[22] Later the Marcomanni also became clients of the Romans.[21]

The Romans built forts in the province of Pannonia, bordering on Marcomannic territory, in the earlier Flavian period (69 AD - 96 AD). These included Arrabona and Brigetio in modern Hungary. They built various military installations in the Middle Danube area at the end of the first century including the fort of Gerulata. This fort, rebuilt several times before the end of the fourth century, is still visible in the village of Rusovce in southern Bratislava.[20]

When Commodus succeeded Marcus Aurelius he had little interest in pursuing the war. Against the advice of his senior generals, he negotiated a peace treaty with the Marcomanni and the Quadi, where he agreed to withdraw south of the Danube Limes. Commodus left for Rome at the end of 180 AD, where he celebrated a triumph.[36]

Romanization of the barbarian population continued in the late Roman period (181-380 AD). Many Roman-style buildings with evidence of trade with the Roman Empire were built in what is now south-western Slovakia at Bratislava, Dúbravka, Cífer, Pác and Veľký Kýr.[37] Roman influence can be also seen in baths, coins, glass and amphorae dated to this period.[38] The Marcomanni converted to Christianity towards the end of the fourth century when Fritigil, their queen, obtained help from Ambrose, the formidable bishop of Milan (Italy), and also persuaded her husband to place himself and his people under Roman protection.[39]

In 373 AD, hostilities erupted between the Romans and the Quadi, who were outraged that Valentinian I was building fortifications in their territory. They complained and sent deputations that were ignored by Aequitius, the magister armorum per Illyricum. However, by that year the construction of these forts was behind schedule. Maximinus, now praetorian prefect of Gaul, arranged with Aequitius to promote his son Marcellianus and put him in charge of finishing the project. The protests of Quadian leaders continued to delay the project, and in a fit of frustration Marcellianus murdered the Quadian king Gabinius at a banquet ostensibly arranged for peaceful negotiations. This roused the Quadi to war. Valentinian did not receive news of these crises until late 374 AD. In the fall he crossed the Danube at Aquincum into Quadian and Marcomannic territory.[40]

After pillaging the lands of today's western Slovakia nearly without opposition, Valentinian retired to Savaria to winter quarters.[41] In the spring he decided to continue campaigning and moved from Savaria to Brigetio. Once he arrived on November 17, he received a deputation from the Quadi. In return for supplying fresh recruits to the Roman army, the Quadi were to be allowed to leave in peace. However, before the envoys left they were granted an audience with Valentinian. The envoys insisted that the conflict was caused by the building of Roman forts in their lands. Furthermore, they said individual bands of Quadi were not necessarily bound to the rule of the chiefs who had made treaties with the Romans, and thus might attack the Romans at any time. This attitude of the envoys so enraged Valentinian I that he suffered a stroke that ended his life.[42]

In 434 Attila devastated the area and started the mass migrations that destroyed the Western Roman Empire.[43] Later the area began to be occupied by Slav tribes. The first written source suggesting that Slavic tribes established themselves in what is now Slovakia is connected to the migration of the Germanic Heruli from the Middle Danube region towards Scandinavia in 512.[44] In this year, according to Procopius, they first passed "through the land of the Slavs", most probably along the river Morava.[14] A cluster of archaeological sites in the valleys of the rivers Morava, Váh and Hron also suggests that at the latest the earliest Slavic settlements appeared in the territory around 500 AD.[15] They are characterized by vessels similar to those of the "Mogiła" group of southern Poland and having analogies in the "Korchak" pottery of Ukraine.[16]

• History of Slovakia
• Marcus Aurelius
• Valentinian I
• Marcus Valerius Maximianus
• Carnuntum
• Celemantia
• Gerulata
• Devín Castle

• Kandler, M. Gli accampamenti militari di Carnuntum (in "Roma sul Danubio") Roma, 2002.
• Kerr, W.G. A Chronological Study of the Marcomannic Wars of Marcus Aurelius. Princeton University ed. Princeton, 1995
• Komoróczy, K otázce existence římského vojenského tábora na počátku 1. st. po Kr. u Mušova (katastr Pasohlávky, Jihomoravský kraj). Kritické poznámky k pohledu římsko provinciální archeologie, in E.Droberjar, - M.Lutovský, Archeologie barbarů, Praha, 2006, pp. 155–205.
• Kovács, Peter. Marcus Aurelius' Rain Miracle and the Marcomannic Wars. Brill Academic Publishers. Leiden, 2009. ISBN 978-90-04-16639-4
• G. Langmann. Die Markomannenkriege 166/167 bis 180. Militärhistor. Schriftenreihe 43. Wien, 1981.
• Ritterling, E. Legio X Gemina. RE XII, 1925, col.1683-1684.