Mozambican literature

The oral literary tradition of Mozambique is represented by fairy tales, proverbs, riddles and legends of different peoples of the country. People and animals act as heroes of folklore.[6] Separately, it is worth noting the art of poets and musicians of the Chopi people, who have retained their original poetic art, which originated before colonization. The performance of poems by Chopi is accompanied by the playing of national instruments - timbilash.[6]

Luís de Camões mastery of verse has been compared to that of Shakespeare, Milton, Vondel, Homer, Virgil and Dante

Since the introduction of the printing press to Mozambique in 1854,[7] printed literature made its debut in the mid-19th century. However, literary production in the colony was initially limited.[8] One exception was Campos Oliveira (1847–1911), a Mozambican-born writer who published numerous poems while studying law in Portuguese India. Upon his return to Mozambique in 1866, he continued publishing and even founded magazines such as Revista Africana and Almanac Popular.[9][10] Earlier, there were instances of writers residing in or visiting the Island of Mozambique, such as Luís de Camões[11] and Tomás António Gonzaga.[12]

Nonetheless, the generation of a local literature was not widespread during this time, except for the contributions of Campos Oliveira. The true emergence of literary texts in Mozambique occurred at the beginning of the 20th century. Supported by an assimilated class of intellectuals in urban areas, predominantly mestizos and mulattoes,[13] a genuinely Mozambican Portuguese-language literature began to flourish.[9] In 1920, Mozambique's first cultural association, the Grémio Africano, was established.[14] Unlike later associations that were racially segregated, this association admitted both blacks and mulattoes. Numerous magazines were founded during this period, including the influential O Africano (1909–1918), founded by the Albasini brothers, José and João.[15] After its sale in 1918, the brothers, along with Estácio Dias and Karel Pott, established O Brado Africano (1918–1974) ("Cry of Africa"), where many important Mozambican writers published their first works, which included texts not only in Portuguese but also in shironga. The authors affiliated with this journal openly advocated for the interests of black people in the colony, shaping a generation of writers and fostering African self-confidence.[16] Many renowned writers published their poems and essays in this newspaper, including Noémia de Sousa, who edited the women's pages, and Marcelino dos Santos, who became a founding member of Frelimo.

João dos Santos Albasini's photograph in O Brado Africano

In the mid-20th century, Mozambican literature experienced different phases of development. It began with the posthumous publication of João dos Santos Albasini's O livro da dor (1925), a collection of personal reflections, which marked the start of the second phase.[17] While Juan Albasini's represented the opposing view where other authors aligned with the colonial authorities like Rodrigues Junior and Manuel de Brito Camacho.[18]

During this period, Mozambicans, who were often looked down upon due to their limited proficiency in Portuguese, sought to imitate European literature as closely as possible.[19] This imitation extended to the choice of genres, with poet Rui de Noronha predominantly using the sonnet form in his works,[20][21] following the European tradition.[17] Other authors were Sousa Ribeiro with Symphonia conspirante (1928), Augusto Conrado with A Perjura ou a Mulher de Duplo Amor (1931), Fibras d'um coração (1933) and Divagações (1938).

However, the establishment of the Estado Novo in 1933 and the subsequent censorship hindered the development of Mozambican national literature. Freedom of expression and the press were severely restricted, especially when compared to French and British colonies. Consequently, Mozambican literary developments were scarcely recognized outside the country. Nevertheless, the repression fueled the politicization of literature and the growth of an African consciousness.[22] This phase concluded in 1946 with the posthumous publication of Rui de Noronha's Sonetos.

Poet Marcelino dos Santos

The literature produced in Mozambique, like other African literature in countries colonized by Portugal, was an extension of Portuguese literature. In written form, literary production was consolidated from the 1940s onwards through periodicals published by intellectuals and writers, generally challenging Portuguese colonialism, such as the "Literary Shout" that circulated in the country between 1918 and 1974 with texts by Rui Nogar, Marcelino dos Santos, José Craveirinha, Orlando Mendes and Virgílio Lemos, between others. In the 19th century, the press and literature were close, the former being a professional alternative for writers who could not survive from literary production. José Craveirinha, considered the father of Mozambican literature.[23] From 1945 to 1965 he was the most read author in Mozambique.[24]

The Négritude movement had been founded in 1934 by Léopold Senghor, Aimé Césaire and Léon Damas. Her central concern was the return to African culture. The fundamental difference between Africa and Europe was highlighted. Africa was seen as the antipode of Europe and idealised as "Mother Africa". The Négritude understood music and dance as specific forms of expression of African culture. This essentialist, i.e., overemphasising the importance of skin colour for the development of a certain culture, view of African culture and "the African as such" ignored the social, economic, cultural and political peculiarities of the various African countries, but was extremely effective to arouse the emerging national feeling of the colonised Africans. A significant element of this movement was the valorisation of orality as a form of African literature. To this day, the “oral tradition” plays a central role in Mozambican literature.[25] In addition to emphasizing one's Africanness, it is articulated by the rejection of colonialism and the desire for freedom and independence. The rejection of colonialism extended to Lusomo-Zambic authors such as Rui Knopfli or Orlando Mendes.

Orlando Mendes's Portrait

Prior to the 1940s, Mozambican literature was heavily influenced by European literature, but a comprehensive reorientation took place around 1946.[26] Mozambican writers, influenced by Portuguese neorealism and the negritude movement, started focusing on the differences between Mozambique and the Portuguese colonial rulers, gradually emancipated itself.[27] The Moçambicanidade can be considered a specific form of expression of negritude in Mozambique.[28] After the Mozambican elite had hitherto largely adapted to the whites, they now increasingly advocated a separation of African and European ideas. Portuguese colonialism was increasingly rejected, including by whites like Rui Knopfli and Orlando Mendes. Noémia de Sousa and José Craveirinha were also important figures during this period, advocating for an independent Mozambican literature.

One of the most important women writers was Noémia de Sousa. She is considered the main representative of the Moçambicanidade (or Mozambicanism).[29][30] Probably unaware of French Négritude, she combined Neorealism with concepts of North American Black Renaissance, Haitian Indigenism, and Cuban Negrism.[31][32] She published all her poems between 1948 and 1951. When she had to leave the country due to political repression in 1951, she left a notebook with 43 poems, which were published in 1988 as an anthology entitled "Sangue negro". Her plea for an independent Mozambican literature had a strong influence on the Mozambican poets of the 1950s. Another representative of the Moçambicanidade was José Craveirinha.[33] He is considered the godfather of Mozambican literature, as his tenure stretched from the 1940s to his death in 2003.[34] He shaped generations of Mozambican writers with his extensive work and was the most widely read author in Mozambique between 1945 and 1965.[35] Craveirinha is now regarded as Mozambique's most significant poet and received the Camões Award in 1991.[36]

This reorientation was also reflected in the literature. The motif of Mãe-África (Mother Africa) or the recurring adjective negro (black) can often be found in the literature of this time. In addition to emphasising one's own Africanness, the black skin color, the literature now also took up African stylistic elements more than in the previous phase. She thereby articulated the rejection of colonialism and the desire for freedom and independence.

At the same time, in his poems Rui de Noronha criticized colonialism and was influenced by the oral tradition.[37][38] Rui de Noronha emerged as a pioneer of truly Mozambican poetry, addressing the plight of blacks and mestizos in his works and critiquing the negative aspects of colonialism.[39] During the colonial period, Mozambican literature began to address nationalist themes. Many future writers pursued education abroad, primarily in Portugal and France. In 1941 the journalist Rui Knopfli founded the magazine Itinerário (1941–1955), which deals with the social, literary and cultural problems of Mozambique and contributed to the emergence of a national identity.[40][41][42]

Due to the political repression, this phase of Mozambican literature is strongly marked by the formation of different groups. One such group was the Casa dos Estudantes do Império, an association of Portuguese, Angolan, Cape Verdean and Mozambican students in Lisbon that had existed since 1944 and campaigned for the interests of the colonies. From 1948, the nationalistically minded Mensagem magazine was published at irregular intervals.

In addition to these two great poets of the Moçambicanidade, the following authors were important: João Dias, whose work Godido e outros contos, published posthumously in 1952, is considered the first fictional work of Mozambican literature, in which poetry had previously dominated. The poet Rui Nogar, who although did not publish a book of his own, continuously published poetry in magazines. The already mentioned Rui Knopfli, whose first volume of poetry was published in 1959 with the title O país dos outros. In addition, the writers Virgílio de Lemos, Ruy Guerra, Fonseca Amaral, António Bronze and Orlando Mendes should be mentioned.

In 1952, the only issue of the magazine Msaho appeared, which means an African dance in Chope.[43] The magazine was banned by the censors after the first issue because of its critical and nationalistic content.[44] Next to the Mozambicans Noémia de Sousa, Alberto Lacerda, Duarte Galvão and Ruy Guerra, the Portuguese Augusto dos Santos Abranches, Cordeiro de Brito and Reinaldo Ferreira were also involved in the publication of Time Step.[45][46] In addition to those mentioned, other magazines were founded that criticised the Salazar regime: Moçambique 58/59 (supplement to the Notícias), A Voz de Moçambique (1960–1975) and Paralelo 20 (1957–1961, 11 issues).

The high point of this phase is the appearance of the anthology Poetas de Moçambique in 1960 published in Lisbon with 38 poems by 23 poets, edited by Mozambicans in Lisbon who had worked for Itinerário and O Brado Africano.[47][48] Contrary to the prevailing idea that Mozambique was part of Portugal, the title made it clear that Mozambique was seen as something in its own right. In the course of the publication of the new edition in 1962, a dispute arose between Rui Knopfli, Rodrigues Júnior and the editor of the anthology over the question of who could be considered a European and who a Mozambican writer. The decisive factor is not the color of the skin, but the content of the works, which can be seen from the fact that numerous whites were involved in the freedom struggle of the colored Mozambicans.

In 1963, the Núcleo dos Estudantes Secundários Africanos de Moçambique (NESAM) (Circle of African Students of Mozambique) was founded in the Mozambique capital of Lourenço Marques (now Maputo).[49] The main representatives of this group were Marcelino Comiche, Albino Magaia and Armando Guebuza. It was a cultural association that sought study grants for black Mozambicans, organised lectures, panel discussions and film screenings and maintained its own library. From 1965, legal activity in the cultural field was no longer possible and the association was forbidden.[50]

In 1962, the first party congress of the Frente da Libertação de Moçambique (FRELIMO) (Mozambique Liberation Front) was held in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. This Marxist-leaning party called for Mozambique's independence from Portugal and led the struggle against the colonial power from 1964 to 1975. Numerous writers sympathized with the movement and some took on posts within the party. Many writers, such as José Craveirinha and Rui Nogar, were arrested by the Portuguese secret police (PIDE) because of their membership in FRELIMO. With the beginning of the armed war of independence in 1964, this phase of Mozambican literature ended. During Mozambique's struggle for independence, Frelimo guerrillas wrote and published numerous poems about their fight. Marcelino dos Santos emerged as one of the most prominent poets of that time. The struggle for independence marked a turning point in Mozambican literature. However, the armed war of independence that began in 1964 brought an end to this phase of Mozambican literature.

Mia Couto, author of "Terra La sonnambula", one of the top 12 "Africa's 100 Best Books of the 20th Century"

Following independence in 1974, a civil war ensued, during which new writers like Mia Couto, Ungulani Ba Ka Khosa, Heliodoro Babtista, and Eduardo White emerged. Couto is an influential figure in Mozambican literature, with his novels being translated into several languages, including Finnish. Couto's works often incorporate elements of magical realism and draw on Mozambican folklore and mythology.[51] Couto was shortlisted for the International Booker Prize for his novel Confession of the Lioness[52] and in 2013 won the Camões prize.[53] In 2014, he won the Neustadt International Prize for Literature for his novel Sleepwalking Land.[54]

Eduardo Mondlane, author of The Fight for Mozambique, one of Africa's 100 Best Books of the 20th Century

In 1982, the Mozambican Writers' Association was created with the poets José Craveirinha,[55] Prize winner Luís de Camões, Albino Magaia, Eusébio Sanjane and others. Notable contemporary authors include Lília Momplé and Paulina Chiziane, whose novel "Balada de Amor ao Vento" was the first published novel by a Mozambican woman. Other notable authors from Mozambique include Heliodoro dos Santos Baptista, Rui Knopfli, and Luís Bernardo Honwana have explored themes such as gender inequality, race relations, and the impact of colonialism on Mozambican society.[36]

Albina Magaya should be mentioned among other Mozambican writers, Jorge Rebelo, Reinaldo Ferreiro, Alberto di Lacerdu, Ruya Knopfli, Malangatanu Ngwenya, Armand Guebuzu,[56] Paulin Schiziana[57] and others. Critics also play an important role in Mozambican literature, among them Eugenio Lisbois and others. Different groups and associations, like Casa dos Estudantes do Império and Núcleo dos Estudantes Secundários Africanos de Moçambique, played a significant role in promoting literature and cultural activities.

The Africa's 100 best books of the 20th Century, organized by the famous Africanist Ali Mazroui, in 2002 named among the laureates the works of such Mozambican writers as José Craveirinha, Luis Bernardo Onwana, Ungulani Ba Ka Khosa, Eduardo Mondlane, and Mia Coutu's novel "Terra Somnambula" even got into the top twelve works.[58] However, only about 20 books are published annually in the country, and the editions are mostly only a few hundred.[59]