Proto-Oceanic language

The phonology of POc can be reconstructed with reasonable certainty.[1] Proto-Oceanic had five vowels: *i, *e, *a, *o, *u, with no length contrast.

Twenty-three consonants are reconstructed. When the conventional transcription of a protophoneme differs from its value in the IPA, the latter is indicated:

Based on evidence from the Southern Oceanic and Micronesian languages, Lynch (2003) proposes that the bilabial series may have been phonetically realized as palatalized: /pʲ/ /ᵐbʲ/ /mʲ/.[3]

Many Oceanic languages of New Guinea, Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, and Micronesia are SVO, or verb-medial, languages. SOV, or verb-final, word order is considered to be typologically unusual for Austronesian languages, and is only found in some Oceanic languages of New Guinea and to a more limited extent, the Solomon Islands. This is because SOV word order is very common in some non-Austronesian Papuan languages in contact with Oceanic languages. In turn, most Polynesian languages, and several languages of New Caledonia, have the VSO word order. Whether Proto-Oceanic had SVO or VSO is still debatable.

Selected reconstructed Proto-Oceanic terms of various animals from Blust's ACD:

Fishes

Proto-Oceanic	Common name	Scientific name
*bubu₇	triggerfish	Balistes sp.
*sumu	triggerfish	Balistidae
*sulik	a fish, the fusilier	Caesionidae sp.
*tipi-tipi	butterflyfish	Chaetodon spp.
*taŋapa	wrasse	Cheilinus spp.
*bolo bolo	small dark surgeonfish	possibly Ctenochaetus
*komi	suckerfish / remora	Echeneis naucrates; hold on by biting
*kamaRi	a fish, the rainbow runner	Elagatis bipinnulata
*piRu-piRu	sailfish	Istiophoridae
*kulabo	a fish	Lethrinidae spp.
*sabutu; *surup₂; *susul₁; *kasika	a fish, the emperor	Lethrinus spp.
*tasiwa	sea perch	Lutjanus sp.
*pu-pulan	a white fish, the tarpon; herring	Megalops cyprinoides
*tiqo	goatfish	family Mullidae
*mwanoRe	unicornfish	Naso unicornis
*taRa	short snouted unicornfish	Naso spp.
*lau	a fish, the banded sweetlips	Plectorhinchus spp.
*lio-lio	brown triggerfish	Pseudobalistes fuscus
*kitoŋ	rabbitfish	Siganus punctatus (family Siganidae)
*palaja	rabbitfish	Siganus sp.
*takua	yellowfin tuna	Thunnus albacares
*piRa₂	sailfin tang	Zebrasoma veliferum

Birds

Proto-Oceanic	Common name	Scientific name
*pusiRa	starling	Aplonis spp.
*kaRa	male eclectus parrot	Eclectus roratus
*kao	heron	probably Egretta sp.
*kiki₁	kingfisher	Halcyon spp.
*kikau, *kipau	Bismarck scrub fowl	Megapodius eremita
*sau	a bird, the Golden Whistler	Pachycephala spp.
*takere	a bird, the fantail	Rhipidura sp.
*bune	fruit dove	probably Treron spp.
*pwirip	parrot	probably Trichoglossus sp.

Other animals

Proto-Oceanic	Common name	Scientific name
*poñu	the green turtle	Chelonia mydas
*kasi	to scrape; scraper or grater made from circular bivalve shell	Asaphis spp.
*buliq₁	cowrie shell	Cypraea mauritiana
*sapulu	bivalve mollusc	possibly Pinna sp.

Reconstructed Proto-Oceanic terms for horticulture and food plants (other than coconuts):[6]

Tubers and their culture

Proto-Oceanic	Meaning
*mwapo(q)	taro (possibly all Araceae)
*talo(s)	taro, Colocasia esculenta
*piRaq	giant taro, elephant ear taro, Alocasia macrorrhiza
*bulaka	swamp taro, Cyrtosperma merkusii
*kamwa	kind of wild taro (?)
*qupi	greater yam, Dioscorea alata; yam (generic)
*pwatik	potato yam, aerial yam, Dioscorea bulbifera
*(s,j)uli(q)	banana or taro sucker, slip, cutting, shoot (i.e. propagation material)
*wasi(n)	taro stem (used for planting)
*bwaŋo	new leaves or shoots, or taro tops for planting
*up(e,a)	taro seedling
*pasoq[-i]	to plant (tubers)
*kotiŋ	to cut off taro tops

Bananas

Proto-Oceanic	Meaning
*pudi	banana, Musa cultivars
*joRaga	banana, Australimusa group
*sakup	kind of cooking banana: long with white flesh (presumably Eumusa group)

Other food plants

Proto-Oceanic	Meaning
*topu	sugar cane, Saccharum officinarum
*pijo	a kind of edible wild cane or a reed, Saccharum spontaneum
*[ka]timun	cucurbit (generic); cucumber, Cucumis sativus
*laqia	ginger, Zingiber officinale
*yaŋo	turmeric, Curcuma longa
*kuluR	breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis
*baReqo	breadfruit fruit (?)
*padran	pandanus (generic); coastal pandanus, Pandanus tectorius
*kiRe	coastal pandanus, Pandanus tectorius
*pakum	Pandanus dubius
*ima	kind of pandanus with useful leaves
*Rabia	sago, Metroxylon spp., mainly Metroxylon sagu
*sag(u)	sago starch
*qatop	sago fronds, thatch
*talise	Java almond, Indian almond, Terminalia catappa
*qipi	Tahitian chestnut, Pacific chestnut, Inocarpus fagifer
*[ka]ŋaRi	canarium almond, Canarium spp.
*molis	citrus fruit or citrus-like fruit
*pau(q)	mango, probably Mangifera indica
*wai, *waiwai	mango (generic)
*kapika	Malay apple and rose apple, Eugenia spp.
*ñonum	Morinda citrifolia
*tawan	Pometia pinnata
*wasa	edible greens, Abelmoschus manihot
*m(w)asoku	wild cinnamon, Cinnamomum spp.
*quRis	Polynesian plum, hog plum, Tahitian apple, Spondias cytherea
*ñatu(q)	kind of tree with avocado-like fruit and hard wood, Burckella obovata
*raqu(p)	New Guinea walnut, Dracontomelon dao
*buaq	areca palm, Areca catechu

Gardening practices

Proto-Oceanic	Meaning
*quma	garden
*tanoq	soil, earth
*poki	to clear ground for planting
*sara	to dig a hole
*tanum[-i]	to plant

Reconstructed plant terms from Malcolm Ross (2008):[7]

Proto-Oceanic plant terms inherited from Proto-Austronesian or Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (65 reconstructions)

Proto-Oceanic	Meaning
*[a]ñuliŋ	Pisonia sp.
*aRu	a shore tree, Casuarina equisetifolia
*bai-bai(t)	a cycad, Cycas rumphii
*[baR]baR	coral tree, Erythrina variegata
*bitu(ŋ)	bamboo sp.
*botu(ŋ)	large bamboo, presumably Bambusa sp.
*buaq	betelnut, areca nut, palm, Areca catechu
*drokol	small Dillenia sp.
*droRu(ŋ)	Trema orientalis
*guRu(n)	sword grass, Imperata cylindrica
*[ja]latoŋ	Laportea and Dendrocnide spp.
*kanawa(n)	Cordia subcordata
*[ka]tim(o,u)n	Cucumis spp. (generic?); cucumber, Cucumis sativus
*kati(p)al	a palm with black wood, Caryota sp.
*kayu	tree or shrub: generic name for plants with woody stems and branches, probably not including palms or tree-ferns; wood, stick
*kiRe	coastal Pandanus sp., probably Pandanus tectorius
*kulapu(R)	Dillenia schlechteri
*kuluR	breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis
*laqia	ginger, Zingiber officinale (?)
*m(ʷ)aso(q)u	wild cinnamon, Cinnamomum sp., probably Cinnamomum xanthoneuron; possibly also Cananga odorata
*malo	paper mulberry, Broussonetia papyrifera; barkcloth, loincloth
*naRa	Pterocarpus indicus
*ñatuq	Burckella obovata
*nini(q)	shrub, Donax cannaeformis
*nipaq	Nypa fruticans
*niuR	coconut palm and/or fruit, Cocos nucifera
*nunuk	fig trees, Ficus taxon
*ŋiRac	Pemphis acidula
*p(ʷ)atoRu	a cycad, Cycas rumphii
*padran	coastal pandanus, Pandanus tectorius; pandanus (generic)
*pali[s,j]i	generic term for grasses and other grass-like plants
*(p,b)anaRo	Thespesia populnea
*para(k)	Zingiberaceae spp. with edible rhizomes
*paRu	Hibiscus tiliaceus
*pila(q)u	Casuarina equisetifolia
*pinu(q)an	Macaranga spp., perhaps Macaranga involucrata
*piRaq	giant taro, elephant ear taro, Alocasia macrorrhizos
*piRu(q)	fan palm, Licuala sp.
*pitaquR	Calophyllum inophyllum
*pudi	banana, Musa cultivars
*[pu-]pulu	betel pepper, Piper betle
*puna	vine used for fish poison, probably Derris elliptica
*putun	Barringtonia asiatica
*qa(l,R)a	Ficus sp.
*qaramʷaqi	Pipturus argenteus
*qasam	fern used for tying and binding, Lygodium circinnatum
*(qate-)qate	Wedelia biflora
*qauR	bamboo spp.
*qipil	a taxon of hardwood trees including Intsia bijuga and Casuarina equisetifolia
*qu(w)e	rattan, Calamus spp.
*qupi	greater yam, Dioscorea alata: yam (generic)
*Rabia	sago, Metroxylon spp., mainly Metroxylon sagu (syn. Metroxylon rumphii)
*raqu(p)	New Guinea walnut, Dracontomelon dao
*rarap	coral tree, Erythrina spp.
*talise	Terminalia catappa
*talo(s)	taro, Colocasia esculenta
*toŋoR	mangrove, Bruguiera spp.; mangroves (generic)
*topu	sugarcane, Saccharum officinarum
*toRas	a taxon of hardwood trees including Intsia bijuga (?)
*tui	Dolichandrone spathacea
*tupa	climbing shrubs, Derris spp.
*wai, *waiwai	mango (generic)
*walasi	tree sp. with poisonous sap, Semecarpus forstenii
*waR[e]	Flagellaria indica
*waRoc	generic term for vines and creepers, plants with creeping or climbing growth structure; string, rope

Proto-Oceanic plant terms inherited from Proto-Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian (11 reconstructions)

Proto-Oceanic	Meaning
*[bual]bual	species of palm used for making spears and bows; palm-wood spear or bow, probably Caryota sp.
*dalo	Calophyllum inophyllum
*dradrap	Hoya sp.
*ima	Pandanus sp. with useful leaves
*jasi	Cordia subcordata
*kai(k)	Albizia sp.
*[ka]ŋaRi	canarium almond, Canarium indicum
*lowaŋa	Litsea sp.
*pail	Falcataria moluccana
*pau(q)	mango, Mangifera sp. (not Mangifera indica)
*Reqi	sword grass, Imperata cylindrica

Proto-Oceanic plant terms inherited from Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian (4 reconstructions)

Proto-Oceanic	Meaning
*na[su]-nasu	Scaevola taccada
*qayawan	Ficus, strangler fig taxon
*tawan[8]	Pometia pinnata
*tuRi-tuRi	candlenut tree, Aleurites moluccanus (?)

Reconstructed terms with no external cognates

Proto-Oceanic plant terms with no known non-Oceanic cognates (97 reconstructions)

Proto-Oceanic	Meaning
*ba(k,g)a	banyan tree, medium-sized Ficus spp., not stranglers
*babak	Falcataria moluccana
*bala	taxon including various Euodia spp. (?)
*baqun	banana cultivar
*baReko	breadfruit
*bau	hardwood taxon
*bele	Abelmoschus manihot
*beta	breadfruit
*biRi-biRi	Hernandia nymphaefolia
*bosi	a forest tree with white wood, probably Euodia elleryana
*bou	Fagraea spp.
*bulu	Garcinia sp., perhaps Garcinia novo-guineensis
*b(ʷ)ala	tree fern, Cycas or Cyathea sp.
*bʷau	bamboo
*bʷele	bamboo sp.
*bʷera	Musa cultivar
*drala	shrub sp., Vitex trifolia
*(dr,d)aRa(q,k)a	wild nutmeg, Myristica sp.
*i(u)bu	Corynocarpus cribbianus
*iguRa	Ficus sp. with sandpapery leaves, either Ficus copiosa or Ficus wassa or both
*ipi	Tahitian chestnut, Inocarpus fagifer
*jajal	croton, Codiaeum variegatum
*jamaR	Commersonia bartramia
*jiRi	taxon consisting of Cordyline fruticosa and Dracaena angustifolia
*joRaga	banana, Fei (?) cultivars
*ka(mʷa)-kamʷa	Ficus sp., perhaps Ficus nodosa
*ka[(r,l)a]qabusi	Acalypha spp.
*kalaka	Planchonella sp.
*kapika	Malay apple, rose apple, Syzygium malaccense
*karagʷam	seaweed, seagrass
*kaRi(q)a	taxon of decorative plants
*kaRi(q)ana	Pandanus lamekotensis
*kayu qone	Heritiera littoralis
*koka	Macaranga spp.
*koma(r,R)(o,u)	Endospermum sp.
*kopu	bamboo sp.
*koRa	wild mango, Mangifera minor
*kurat	the dye produced from Morinda citrifolia
*m(ʷ)ase	wild mulberry, paper mulberry, Broussonetia papyrifera
*ma(i)tagaR(a)	Kleinhovia hospita
*mapuqan	Flueggea flexuosa (?)
*maqota	Dysoxylum spp.
*maRakita	the putty nut, probably Parinari laurina and Parinari glaberrima
*maRako	Trichospermum peekelii
*mari(a)sapa	Syzygium sp.
*molis	citrus fruit or citrus-like fruit, perhaps Clymenia polyandra
*mʷala(q)u	Glochidion philippicum
*mʷalak (?)	spider lily, Crinum asiaticum
*mʷaña	Pandanus sp., perhaps Pandanus conoideus
*mʷapo(q)	taro, Colocasia esculenta
*mʷaruqe	Dioscorea sp. or perhaps a cultivar of Dioscorea alata
*nipus	Cryptocarya sp.
*ñoñu	Morinda citrifolia
*olaŋa	Campnosperma brevipetiolatum
*pakum	Pandanus dubius
*pala(ŋ)	cut nut, bush nut, Barringtonia novae-hiberniae (green variety?)
*paliaRua	a vine, Merremia peltata
*paqo	Heliconia sp.
*paqu	Kleinhovia hospita
*pasa(r,R)	Vitex cofassus
*pesi	a coastal forest tree, perhaps Pongamia pinnata
*pi(y)uŋ	Miscanthus floridulus
*pijo	cane or reed taxon, including Saccharum spontaneum
*poipoi	Pandanus sp., perhaps Pandanus tectorius
*poka(q)	variety of Malay apple
*(p,b)oso	kind of taro
*puRe	taxon of beach creepers; perhaps prototypically Ipomoea grandiflora and Ipomoea pes-caprae
*pʷa(k,g)e	kind of green vegetable (?)
*pʷabosi	free-standing small or medium-sized Ficus sp., probably Ficus wassa
*p(ʷ)asa(r,R)	large Pandanus sp.
*pʷatika	potato yam, aerial yam, Dioscorea bulbifera
*p(ʷ)awa(t)	Cerbera spp., probably Cerbera floribunda and Cerbera manghas
*pʷete	bird's nest fern, Asplenium nidus
*pʷi(r,R)a	Cananga odorata
*qarop	Premna spp.
*qat(V)	Terminalia sp. with edible nut
*(q,k)atita	the putty nut, probably Parinari laurina and Parinari glaberrima
*(q)alipa, *lalipa	nut sp., possibly canarium almond, Canarium sp. (?)
*qope	Gyrocarpus americanus
*quRis	Spondias cytherea
*(quta)quta	grass and weeds (generic)
*rabum	grass
*Rigi	rosewood, Pterocarpus indicus
*sabakap	Alstonia scholaris
*sakup	banana cultivar with long fruit (?)
*seRa	Ficus sp., perhaps Ficus adenosperma
*sila	Job's tears, Coix lacryma-jobi
*tamanu	Calophyllum sp.
*taŋa	Ficus tinctoria
*tapi(l)	puzzlenut tree, Xylocarpus granatum (?)
*tapoRa	a nut-bearing tree sp.
*tawasi	Rhus taitensis
*toRu	Cordia subcordata
*udu(r,R)	Dioscorea alata cultivar (?)
*wasa	Abelmoschus manihot; green vegetables in general
*wasi-wasi	Abroma augusta
*yaŋo	turmeric, Curcuma longa

Proto-Western Oceanic plant terms with no known external cognates (22 reconstructions)

Proto-Oceanic	Meaning
*bara	Macaranga spp.
*basi	mango
*baul	mangrove, Rhizophora sp. (?)
*bʷana	Intsia bijuga
*bʷatiq	banana cultivar
*gobu	Dioscorea sp.
*ka(p)ul	seed yam
*kamisa	lesser yam, Dioscorea esculenta
*kam(ʷ)apaR	Cryptocarya sp.
*kasuwai	mango
*kobo	taxon of Macaranga spp.
*kokoi	mushroom sp.
*[ku,i]Rim(a,o)	Octomeles sumatrana
*lapuka	kind of tree with fruit similar to breadfruit, Parartocarpus venenosa (?)
*m(ʷ)ali	Derris sp.
*mamisa	lesser yam, Dioscorea esculenta
*moke	Pandanus sp.
*mʷa(r,R)e	taxon including Codiaeum variegatum and Cordyline fruticosa
*nagi	Cordia sp.
*(s,j)a(q,k)umu	Pandanus sp.
*tabun	Garcinia sp.
*tabuqaR	Saccharum edule

Proto-Eastern Oceanic plant terms with no known external cognates (15 reconstructions)

Proto-Oceanic	Meaning
*bakuRa	Calophyllum sp., probably Calophyllum kajewskii
*buka	taxon of littoral trees, including Pisonia spp. and Gyrocarpus americanus
*bulipa	Ficus sp.
*gama	Finschia cloroxantha
*(k)a(r,l)adroŋa	Acalypha sp.
*koka	tree sp., Bischofia javanica
*mabʷe	Tahitian chestnut, Inocarpus fagifer
*melo	Elaeocarpus angustifolius
*milo	Thespesia populnea
*mʷa(q)ele	a cycad, Cycas rumphii
*pakalo, *pʷakala (?)	Hibiscus sp.
*paRage	Pangium edule
*pinuaq	a nut tree, perhaps Canarium sp. (?)
*rako	Heliconia sp., usually Heliconia indica
*sinu	taxon of shrubs whose sap causes irritation, including species of Phaleria

Proto-Remote Oceanic plant terms with no known external cognates (6 reconstructions)

Proto-Oceanic	Meaning
*buavu	Hernandia sp.
*maRi	breadfruit
*sasaRu	Abelmoschus manihot
*vaRo	Neisosperma oppositifolium
*vuba	kind of vine, probably Derris elliptica
*wasi-wasi	Sterculia vitiensis

Selected reconstructed Proto-Oceanic terms of various plants from the Austronesian Comparative Dictionary:[5]

Proto-Oceanic	Common name	Scientific name
*kalaqabusi	a shrub	Acalypha sp.
*piRaq₂	wild taro, elephant-ear or itching taro	Alocasia spp.
*sabakap	a tree	Alstonia scholaris
*putun₁	a shore tree	Barringtonia spp.
*que	rattan	Calamus sp.
*pitaquR	a shore tree	Calophyllum inophyllum
*kaŋaRi	tree with edible nut, the Canarium almond	Canarium commune
*(q)alipa	a nut tree	Canarium sp.
*aRu	a shore tree	Casuarina equisetifolia
*talos	taro	Colocasia esculenta
*toRu	a tree	Cordia subcordata
*aŋo	turmeric	Curcuma longa
*punat	a plant used to stun fish	Derris elliptica
*tupa₂	fish poison	Derris spp.
*pwatika	potato yam, aerial yam	Dioscorea bulbifera
*rarap	a tree with dense clusters of red flowers, the Indian coral tree	Erythrina indica
*buRat	a tree with sweet-smelling flowers	Fagraea berteroana
*pail	a plant	Falcataria moluccana
*taŋa₃	a shrub with edible figs	Ficus tinctoria
*baka₂	kind of banyan tree	Ficus sp.
*pwano-pwano	a plant	Guettarda speciosa
*paqo	a plant	Heliconia spp.
*kuRun; *pitu₂	sword grass	Imperata cylindrica
*ipi₂	the ‘Tahitian chestnut’	Inocarpus fagiferus or Inocarpus edulis
*puRe₂	beach creepers	including Ipomoea grandiflora and Ipomoea pes-caprae
*pau	a plant	Kleinhovia hospita
*karat₂	a small stinging plant	perhaps Laportea interrupta
*latoŋ, *la-latoŋ, *salatoŋ, *silatoŋ	stinging nettle	Laportea spp.
*piRu	fan palm	Licuala rumphii
*pinuan	a tree	Macaranga spp.
*koka	a tree	Macaranga spp., Euphorbiaceae
*koRa	wild mango	Mangifera minor
*paliaRua	a vine	Merremia peltata
*gurat	a tree with roots that furnish a red dye	Morinda citrifolia tree
*kurat	the dye produced from the Morinda citrifolia	Morinda citrifolia dye
*ñoñu	tree with inedible white fruit and root that yields a useful dye	Morinda citrifolia tree
*paoq (ʔ)	a tree	Ochrosia oppositifolia
*mwaña	pandanus sp.	probably Pandanus conoideus
*kiRe	a pandanus	Pandanus odoratissimus; a mat made from the leaves of this plant
*katita	putty nut	Parinari laurinum
*pu-pulu	betel pepper	Piper betle
*pesi	coastal tree	perhaps Pongamia pinnata
*tawasi	a tree	Rhus taitensis
*pijo	kind of reed or cane	including Saccharum spontaneum
*kapika, *kapiku	the Malay apple	Syzygium malaccense
*talise₁	a shore tree with edible nuts	Terminalia catappa
*pasa(r,R)	a woody plant or tree	Vitex cofassus