Republic of China Armed Forces

CM-11 Brave Tiger at Hukou Army Base

The Land force was established in 1924. It can be traced back to the establishment of the Whampoa Military Academy in Canton by 1911 revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen and built as the National Revolutionary Army, the military arm of KMT. Whampoa Military Academy was relocated to Fengshan District, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan after 1949. It was re-established as the Republic of China Military Academy (中華民國陸軍軍官學校).

ROCS Pan Shih (AOE-532)

The Navy of the Qing dynasty was first exposed to Western influence. With the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912, many former Qing-naval officers agreed with the revolutionary ideal of Xinhai and joined the ROC Navy. However, with warlordism continuing to plague the territory of the Republic of China, the development of the Republican navy was somewhat slow. Furthermore, there were internal conflicts during its development. During the 2nd Sino-Japanese war, most of the ROC Navy was destroyed by the Imperial Japanese Navy. In 1946 the Republic of China Naval Academy was established in Shanghai; it was relocated to Taiwan in 1949.

ROC Marine Corps Amphibious Reconnaissance and Patrol Unit

The ROC Marine Corps was formed from the former Navy Sentry Corps in December 1914, it used to have two divisions, 66th and 99th divisions, in size, when its doctrine focused on retaking mainland China. Since its transition to a defensive posture, the ROCMC has been downsized from about 38,000 active personnel to only 9,000. In 2004, the ROCMC redeployed a brigade near the Taipei area to defend against a possible PLA decapitation strike. The ROC Marine Corps' official motto is "永遠忠誠" (Forever Loyalty), the Chinese translation of "Semper Fidelis".

ROC Air Force Air Defense Artillery Skyguard system Sparrow missile launcher

In 1920 Sun Yat-sen established the Aviation Ministry in Canton (Guangdong Province). But due to the division of the Southern Warlords, it was later dismantled. In 1929, Chiang Kai-shek established the Aviation Class in the ROC Military Academy. It was relocated to Hangzhou in 1931. Following the outbreak of the 2nd Sino-Japanese War, the ROC Air Force was responsible for shooting down many Japanese Air force fighters. After 1949 the ROC Air Force Academy was relocated to Taiwan island.

ROC Army CM-32 Yunpao APC on display

The ROC Military Police was established in 1914 when Sun Yat-sen assumed the provisional presidency. It was established as a police guard and to maintain discipline within the army. In 1932 the nationalist government established the "Command Work of Military Police" (憲兵勤務令) and the Service Procedure for the Military Police (憲兵服務章程), which established the military police system. In 1936, the Military police Academy was founded in Nanjing. The school relocated to Taiwan after 1949.

Since 2021 training for reserve formations has been increased with an emphasis placed on urban and asymmetric warfare. The training period for reservists has been increased to two weeks from 5-7 days. In 2022 reserves numbered 2.31 million. The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine increased support for and understanding from the public of the effectiveness of well trained and equipped reserves.[2] In 2022 women were included in reserve training.[16] Following the Russian invasion the Ministry of Defense raised the required national stockpile minimum for medication from two months to six months with a up to a years worth of stockpiles mandated for critical drugs.[17]

The military runs combat training camps for high school students during school breaks.[18]

Two children taking pictures with ROC Military Policemen at Linkou MP Base

Three ROC Navy Honor Guards chatting at Hsinchu Air Base

During the 2000s, there were initial plans to turn the ROCAF into a volunteer armed forces as relations between the ROC and PRC were improving during this time. In 2012, ROC Ministry of National Defence announced that the length of service was reduced to 4 months from the original 1 year in December 2011 for those born after 1 January 1994, due to aims to establish an all-volunteer force. As since, all able-bodied men reaching conscription age will undergo 4 month long military training instead of serving for 1 year, as it was done previously. Those born prior to 1 January 1994 and were yet to complete their military service were given an option to serve in a non-combatant role for a duration of one year.[19]

This policy was reversed in 2022, when president Tsai Ing-wen announced that conscription will revert back to 1 year from 2024, as relations with the PRC had deteriorated since at least 2016 when her party came into power.[1]

The ROC Armed Forces' officer corps is generally viewed as being competent, displaying a high degree of professionalism. However, as a whole, the culture in the officer corps tends to be very cautious and conservative. The military also faces difficulties in the recruitment and retention of junior officers and NCOs due to competition with the private sector.

Officers are promoted monthly with ceremonial conferences of rank carried out twice a year. Previously both the promotions and ceremonial conferences had been carried out simultaneously on a biannual cycle.[20]

Women have a long history of service in Taiwan's armed forces but were exempted from conscription.[21] In 2022 Chen Yu-lin, a political warfare officer, became the first woman promoted to the rank of two star Lieutenant General.[20] In 2023 15% of active duty military personnel were women.[22]

The following service commands are directly subordinate to the General Staff, headed by the Chief of the General Staff, which answers to the civilian command structure under the Minister of Defense and the ROC President:[7]

• Republic of China Army (ROCA)
• Republic of China Navy (ROCN)
  • Republic of China Marine Corps (ROCMC)
• Republic of China Air Force (ROCAF)
• Republic of China Military Police (ROCMP)

The Coast Guard Administration was created in 2001 from related police and military units and is administered by the Executive Yuan and may be incorporated as a military branch during times of emergency but for the large part remains in civilian control.

There are also Combined Service Forces within the Republic of China military (army, navy, air force) such as Political Warfare Forces, Signaller, Combat medic, administrative, finance etc. The position of Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Combined Service Forces exists in the Republic of China military. The last known person to hold this position was Muslim Lt. Gen. Ma Ching-chiang.[23]

ROC Marine Corps Special Service Company Operator with SIG MPX

Acquisitions over the next several years will emphasize modern ISR equipment that will vastly improve communications and data-sharing among services. These and other planned acquisitions will gradually shift the island's strategic emphasis to offshore engagement of invading PRC forces. It is hoped that this will serve to reduce civilian casualties and damage to infrastructure in the event of armed conflict.[7]

The ROC's armed forces are equipped with weapons obtained primarily from the United States, France, United Kingdom and the Netherlands.[24]

In July 2007 it was reported that the ROC Army would request the purchase of 30 AH-64D II Apache attack helicopters based on the 2008 defense budget.[25] The United Daily News reported that as many as 90 UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters would also be ordered to replace the UH-1Hs then in service.

During August, the ROC requested 60 AGM-84L Harpoon Block II missiles, two Harpoon guidance control units, 30 Harpoon containers, 30 Harpoon extended air-launch lugs, 50 Harpoon upgrade kits from AGM-84G to AGM-84L configuration and other related elements of logistics and program support, to a total value of US$125 million. The United States government indicated its approval of the order with notification to the United States Congress of the potential sale.[26]

In mid-September 2007, the Pentagon notified the U.S. Congress of P-3C Orion order, which included 12 Orions and three "spare aircraft", along with an order for 144 SM-2 Block IIIA missiles. The total value of the 12 P-3C Orions were estimated at around $1.96 billion and $272 million for the 144 SM-2 missiles.[27] A contract was awarded to Lockheed Martin to refurbish the 12 P-3C Orion aircraft for the ROC on 2009-03-13, with deliveries to start in 2012.[28]

In mid-November 2007, the Pentagon notified the US Congress about a possible sale to upgrade the ROC's existing three Patriot missile batteries to the PAC-3 standard. The total value of the upgrade could be as much as $939 million.[29]

The US government announced on 3 October that it planned to sell $6.5 billion worth of arms to the ROC ending the freeze of arms sales to the ROC. The plans include $2.5 billion worth of 30 AH-64D Block III Apache Longbow attack helicopters with night-vision sensors, radar, 174 Stinger Block I air-to-air missiles, 1,000 AGM-114L Hellfire missiles, PAC-3 missiles (330), four missile batteries, radar sets, ground stations and other equipment valued up to $3.1 billion. E-2T aircraft upgraded to E-2C Hawkeye 2000 standard were also included, worth up to $250 million. $200 million worth of submarine-launched Harpoon Block II missiles (32) would also be available for sale, $334 million worth of various aircraft spare parts and 182 Javelin missiles, with 20 Javelin command launchers.

However, not included in the arms sale were new F-16 C/D fighters, the feasibility study for diesel-electric submarines or UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters.[30] The White House had declined to sell 66 F-16C/D fighter planes as US Pacific Command has felt no need for advanced arms to be sold to the ROC.[31]

On 29 January 2010 the US government announced five notifications to US Congress for arms sales to the ROC, two Osprey class mine hunters for $105 million (all figures in US dollars), 25 Link 16 terminals on ships for $340 million, two ship- and two air-launched Harpoon L/II for $37 million, 60 UH-60M and other related items for $3.1 billion and three PAC-3 batteries with 26 launchers and 114 PAC-3 missiles for $2.81 billion, for a total $6.392 billion overall.[32][33][34][35][36]

The ROC's efforts at arms purchases have consistently been opposed by the PRC.[37]

NCSIST Chien Hsiang loitering munition

The military's light weapons are generally managed by the Armaments Bureau of the Ministry of National Defense, whose 205th Arsenal (第205廠) is responsible for developing and producing light weapons such as T65 assault rifle, T75 Light machine gun, T86 assault rifle, T91 assault rifle, T75 pistol, various types of bullets etc.

The military has also stressed military "self-reliance," which has led to the growth of indigenous military production, producing items such as the ROC's Indigenous Defense Fighter, the Thunderbolt 2000 Multiple Launch Rocket System, Clouded Leopard Armoured Vehicle, the Sky Bow II and Sky Bow III SAMs and Hsiung Feng series of anti-ship missiles.

R.O.C. Army soldiers removing the machine guns from a CM-12 Tank

The modern day ROC military is styled after western military systems, mostly the US military. Internally, it has a political warfare branch/department that tightly controls and monitors each level of the ROC military, and reports directly to the General Headquarters of the ROC military, and if necessary, directly to the President of the ROC. This is a carryover from the pre-1949 era, when KMT and its army were penetrated by Communist agents repeatedly and led to frontline units defecting to Communist China. To strengthen their control over the military and prevent massive defection after retreating to Taiwan in 1949, CKS and CCK employed tight control over the military, by installing political officers and commissioners down to the company level, in order to ensure political correctness in the military and loyalty toward ROC leadership. This gave the political officers/commissars a great deal of power, allowing them to overrule the unit commander and take over the unit. Only in recent years has the political warfare department (due to cutbacks) reduced its power within the ROC military.

Two defense reform laws implemented in 2002 granted the civilian defense minister control over the entire military, and expanded legislative oversight authority for the first time in history.[38] In the past the ROC military was closely linked with and controlled by the KMT (Nationalist Party). Following the democratization of the 1990s the military moved to a politically neutral position, though the senior officer ranks remained dominated by KMT members in 2001.[39] In the years following the handover of control to civilian authority politicians remained wary of associating too closely with the military due to the legacy of martial law and the associated abuses conducted by the military. Support for the military increased in accordance with threats from the PRC and the Russian invasion of Ukraine however even in the 2020s many Taiwanese were still distrustful of the military.[40]

ROCAF AIDC F-CK Indigenous Defense Fighter

ROCN Cheng Kung-class frigate

ROCA Thunderbolt-2000

The primary goal of the ROC Armed Forces is to provide a credible deterrent against hostile action by establishing effective counterstrike and defense capabilities. ROC military doctrine in 2004 centered upon the principle of "offshore engagement" where the primary goal of the armed forces in any conflict with the PRC would be to keep as much of the fighting away from Taiwan proper for as long as possible to minimize damage to infrastructure and civilian casualties. As of 2004 the military had also begun to take the threat of a sudden "decapitation attack" by the PRC seriously. Consequently, there was growing emphasis on the role of the Navy and Air Force (where the Army had traditionally dominated); as well as the development of rapid reaction forces and quick mobilization of local reserve forces.[7]

As of 2021 training for electronic warfare had been emphasized with significant offensive and defensive capabilities having been fielded.[41]

The Han Kuang Exercise is the annual military exercise of the Republic of China Armed Forces for combat readiness in the event of an attack by the People's Liberation Army.[42]

Mainland China has removed the phrase "peaceful" in official government documents regarding plans to take back Taiwan.[43] Though the Army had previously been the dominant service, the shift to a defensive orientation has shifted importance to the Navy and Air Force to conduct most fighting away from population centers. Given the current budgetary and numerical superiority of the Chinese military, Taiwan has moved towards an asymmetric anti-access/area denial system to imperil China's ability to operate in the Taiwan Strait rather than try to match its strength. The RoCN, which was once the most neglected force, has become the most important to defeat an invasion fleet. Combating the enemy fleet and sinking transport ships would take out large amounts of the ground invasion force and permanently degrade amphibious capabilities. Surface ships primarily consist of guided missile destroyers and frigates, as well as four dozen small, fast missile boats to take out much larger Chinese surface and amphibious ships. The RoCAF is optimized for air superiority and was once the more formidable of the two countries, but current Chinese technology investments have made China much more able to contest airspace. Air bases are likely to come under attack from Chinese conventional ballistic missiles in range of the island. Taiwan has equipment to keep exposed bases operating while under fire with runway repair systems and mobile aircraft arresting systems. There are two underground air bases used by the RoCAF: Chiashan Air Force Base which is in a hollowed-out mountain that can protect 200 fighters and Chihhang Air Base which can protect 80 aircraft. The RoCAF operates a nationwide air defense network to engage targets anywhere over the mainland; some anti-aircraft missile batteries are also located in underground silos. The Army would only fight if Chinese forces manage to land and would engage in asymmetric warfare. In 2014 Taiwan Minister of National Defense Yen Ming believed that the country would be able to hold off a Chinese invasion for at least one month.[44]

In the late 2010s Taiwan's military adopted a new strategy called the Overall Defense Concept (ODC), according to The Diplomat "In short, the ODC is a holistically integrated strategy for guiding Taiwan's military force development and joint operations, emphasizing Taiwan's existing natural advantages, civilian infrastructure and asymmetrical warfare capabilities. It is designed to deter and, if necessary, defeat an invasion by China's People's Liberation Army (PLA)."[45] In 2021 Defense Minister Chiu Kuo-cheng said that “I always tell my peers to stop asking, ‘how many days we need to hold out?’ The question is, ‘how many days does China want to fight?’ We’ll keep them company for as many days as they want to fight.”[46] The adopted ODC emphasizes deep strike and layered deterrence.[47]

In the 1970s the Republic of China trained Salvadoran officers involved in human rights violations during the country's civil war.[50]

In 2011 and 2012 Taiwan worked with the EU's Naval Force in Operation Atalanta to counter piracy off the coast of Somalia. Since then exchanges and information sharing has continued, between 2011 and 2015 EU anti-piracy officials made five visits to Taiwan.[51]

In 2020, Taiwan donated two UH-1H utility helicopters to Eswatini.[52]

In the 1970s the Republic of China trained Guatemalan officers involved in human rights violations.[50] In 2019 Guatemalan Minister of Defense Major General Luis Miguel Ralda Moreno visited Taiwan and met with Taiwanese President Tsai Ing-wen.[53]

In 2015 Taiwan donated three UH-1H utility helicopters to Honduras.[54]

There is no official cooperation between the ROC military and the Japanese Self Defense Force (JSDF). The JSDF has sent observers to the digital part of the annual Han Kuang Exercise.[55] New Japanese military legislation came into effect in 2016, allowing deployment to defend a regional ally under attack. This is thought to be primarily legislation for Japan to deploy to Taiwan in an event of an attack on Taiwan, which in turn threatens Japanese security in its southern islands.[56]

In 2019 Taiwan donated five refurbished surplus interceptor boats to the Nicaraguan Armed Forces. The transfer ceremony occurred at the naval forces’ 2nd battalion in Puerto Sandino.[57]

In 2019 Taiwan donated two UH-1H helicopters and 30 Humvees to the Armed Forces of Paraguay. Paraguayan President Mario Abdo Benítez shared pictures of the military aid on the presidential Twitter feed.[58]

Humanitarian aid sent by a C-130 Hercules of the Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) to Hualien Airport, Taiwan during the 2018 Hualien earthquake.

Starting in 1975, Singapore has sent units from its military to train in the Republic of China under the Starlight training program (星光計畫). Singaporean forces training in Taiwan numbered roughly 3,000 as of 2005.[59] Singapore has also supplied the ROCAF with military equipment.[60]

In 2007, a F-5F fighter operated by the Republic of China Air Force (ROCAF) crashed into base housing that was occupied by Singaporean personnel, killing the pilots. Two Singaporeans on the ground were also killed, with nine injured. The Starlight program at that time numbered around 7,000 personnel.[61]

In 2019, a Singaporean paratrooper was seriously injured during nighttime parachute training.[62] He underwent intensive surgery and recovery in Taiwan. In 2020 he was flown back to Singapore aboard a Singapore Air Force A330 Multi-Role Tanker Transport.[63]

T-93 sniper rifle with the Taiwanese team competing in the International Sniper Competition at Fort Benning, Georgia in 2010

Collaboration between the ROC and US militaries began during World War II when both nations were members of the Allied forces, and continued through the Chinese Civil War when ROC forces were supplied primarily by the US until the final evacuation of ROC forces to Taiwan in 1949. Initially the U.S. expected the ROC government to fall and withdrew support until the outbreak of the Korean War when the U.S. 7th Fleet was ordered to the Taiwan Straits both to protect Taiwan from a PRC attack, and to stop ROC actions against the PRC.[64] A formal US-ROC security pact was signed in 1954 establishing a formal alliance that lasted until US recognition of the PRC in 1979.[65] During this period US military advisers were deployed to the ROC and joint exercises were common. The United States Taiwan Defense Command was established in the Philippines for reinforcement of Taiwan airspace. The US and ROC also collaborated on human and electronic intelligence operations directed against the PRC.[66]

ROC units participated in the Korean War and the Vietnam War in non-combat capacities, primarily at the insistence of the United States which was concerned that the high-profile roles for ROC forces in these conflicts would lead to full scale PRC intervention.[66] The United States deployed nuclear weapons on Taiwan as part of the United States Taiwan Defense Command. Nuclear weapons are known to have been stored at Tainan Air Force Base until their withdrawal was ordered by the American President in 1972.[67] High-level cooperation ended with the US recognition of the PRC in 1979, when all remaining US forces in Taiwan were withdrawn. The US continued to supply the ROC with arms sales per the Taiwan Relations Act, albeit in a diminished role.[66]

When the United States Congress enacted on September 30, 2002, the Foreign Relations Authorization Act for FY 2003, it required that Taiwan be "treated as though it were designated a major non-NATO ally."[68] Despite some initial misgivings about Congress's perceived intrusion into the President's foreign affairs authority, the Bush administration subsequently submitted a letter to Congress on August 29, 2003, designating Taiwan as a major non-NATO ally.[68]

In recent years, the ROC military has again begun higher level cooperation with the United States Armed Forces after over two decades of relative isolation. Senior officers from the U.S. Pacific Command observed the annual Han Kuang military exercises in 2005. The US also upgraded its military liaison position in Taipei from a position held by retired officers hired on a contractual basis to one held by an active duty officer the same year.[69] The United States regularly sends personnel to Taiwan for both training and liaison purposes but does so either secretly or in an unofficial capacity. ROC Marines have trained with their American counterparts in Hawaii and US Marines have also deployed to Taiwan.[70][71]

In 2015 two United States Marine Corps F/A-18C Hornets made an unscheduled landing at Tainan Air Force Base after one of them developed an engine anomaly in-flight. The aircraft were accommodated in an air force hangar until a C-130 full of American technicians could be flown in to check them out.[72]

Tsai Ing-wen's request to purchase weaponry from the US was approved by the US State Department in July 2019. The deal includes 108 M1 Abrams tanks, 250 FIM-92 Stinger missiles and related equipment worth $2.2 billion.[73] Tsai said the weaponry would "greatly enhance our land and air capabilities, strengthen military morale and show to the world the US commitment to Taiwan's defense."[74] In May 2020, the U.S. Department of State approved a Foreign Military Sale of 18 MK-48 Mod 6 Advanced Technology Heavy Weight Torpedoes for Taiwan in a deal estimated to cost $180 million.[75]

Elite units of the ROC and American militaries have trained together for a long time, units often have particular relationships for example the MPSSC trains and engages in exercises with United States Army Special Forces.[48] In June 2020 the United States Army Special Forces published a promotional video which included footage of Green Berets training in Taiwan.[76] The ROC Army Aviation and Special Forces Command and the United States Army Special Forces have an annual training exercise called Balance Tamper. The ROC Marines receive training annually from the US Marine Corps’ Marine Raider Regiment.[77] The United States Air Force supports Taiwan's air force through air-to-air refueling and training.[78]

ROC soldiers marching to the front lines in 1939

ROC soldiers in house-to-house fighting in Battle of Taierzhuang

• Northern Expedition: 1926–1928
• Central Plains War: May 1930 – 4 November 1930
• First Communist Insurrection/Purge: 1927–1937
  • Nanchang Uprising: 1927
  • Autumn Harvest Uprising: 1927
  • Xi'an Incident: 12 December 1936
• Second Sino-Japanese War/World War II: 1937–1945
  • Marco Polo Bridge Incident: 7 July 1937
  • Battle of Shanghai: 13 August – 9 November 1937
  • Battle of Nanjing: October–December 1937
  • Battle of Taierzhuang: 24 March – April 1938
  • First Battle of Changsha: 17 September – 6 October 1939
  • Second Battle of Changsha: 6 September – 8 October 1941
  • Third Battle of Changsha: 24 December 1941 – 15 January 1942
  • Defense of Sichuan: 1942–1943
  • Battle of Hengyang-Changsha: June 1944 – April 1945
• Chinese Civil War: 1946–1950
  • New Fourth Army Incident: 1940
• February 28 Incident: 28 February – March 1947

Kuningtou Battle Museum, Kinmen County

August 23 Artillery Battle Museum, Kinmen County

• Battle of Kuningtou: 25–28 October 1949
• Battle of Dengbu Island: 3–5 November 1949
• Hainan Campaign: 1 March 1950 – 1 May 1950
• First Battle of Dadan island: July 26, 1950
• Korean War: 1950–1953, Translators, cross border raids into southwest China from Burma.[84]
• Battle of Nanri island: 11 – 15 April 1952
• Dongshan Island Campaign: 15 July 1953
• First Taiwan Strait Crisis: August 1954 – May 1955
  • Battle of Yijiangshan: 18 January 1955
  • Tachen Evacuation: 7–11 February 1955
• Second Taiwan Strait Crisis (August 23 Artillery Battle): 23 August – early October 1958
  • Second Battle of Dadan island: 26 August 1958
• Vietnam War: 1960s, Deployment of small groups of ROC troops disguised as locals, transportation, and technical assistance. Not widely publicized to avoid PRC involvement.[66]
• Battle of Dong-Yin: 1 May 1965
• Battle of Wuchow: 13–14 November 1965
• Yemen Civil War: 1979 to 1985: 80+ F-5E pilots plus ground crew sent to North Yemen to boost its air defense at the request of Saudi Arabia and the United States. At least one squadron strength was kept throughout the period, flying North Yemen's F-5E fleet.[85]
• Third Taiwan Strait Crisis: 21 July 1995 – 23 March 1996
• Southeast Asian tsunami relief: January 2005
• Military intervention against ISIL: 13 June 2014 – present (Under CJTF-OIR)