Commercial sorghum

The FAO reports that 440,000 square kilometres (110,000,000 acres) were devoted worldwide to sorghum production in 2004. In the US, sorghum grain is used primarily as a maize (corn) substitute for livestock feed because their nutritional values are very similar. Some hybrids commonly grown for feed have been developed to deter predation by birds, and therefore contain a high concentration of tannins and phenolic compounds, which necessitates additional processing to allow the grain to be digested by cattle.

FAO / FAOSTAT reported the United States of America was the top producer of sorghum in 2019, with a harvest of 8.7 million metric tons (8,600,000 long tons; 9,600,000 short tons). The next four major producers of sorghum, in decreasing quantities, were Nigeria, Ethiopia and Mexico. The other major sorghum producing regions in the world, by harvested quantities, were: Australia, Brazil, China, Burkina Faso, Argentina, Mali, Cameroon, Egypt, India, Niger, Tanzania, Chad, Uganda, and Venezuela.[10]

In the future, use of sorghum may increase in Tanzania, as farmers replace maize with the drought-resistant crop in areas with diminished rainfall caused by climate change. Following lobbying by the ICRISAT-led Hope Project, the Tanzanian government recently included improved varieties of sorghum in its seed subsidy programme and agreed to provide a fertiliser subsidy programme for sorghum for the first time. This means that the government will buy seed from seed companies and sell it to farmers at almost half the market price. Tanzania's farmers have reported that improved sorghum varieties grow quickly, demand less labour and are more resistant to pests and diseases.[11]

The world harvested 55.6 million metric tons (54,700,000 long tons; 61,300,000 short tons) of sorghum in 2010. The world average annual yield for the 2010 sorghum crop was 1.37 metric tons per hectare (0.55 long ton/acre; 0.61 short ton/acre). The most productive farms of sorghum were in Jordan, where the national average annual yield was 12.7 metric tons per hectare (5.1 long ton/acre; 5.7 short ton/acre). The national annual average yield in the world's leading sorghum-producing country, the US, was 4.5 metric tons per hectare (1.8 long ton/acre; 2.0 short ton/acre).[12]

The allocation of farmland to sorghum crops has been decreasing, while the yields per hectare have been increasing. The largest sorghum crop the world has produced since 1972 was in 1985, with 77.6 million metric tons (76,400,000 long tons; 85,500,000 short tons) harvested that year.

Top sorghum producers — 2021 — metric tons (long tons; short tons)[13]

United States	11.4 (11.2; 12.6)
Nigeria	6.7 (6.6; 7.4)
India	4.8 (4.7; 5.3)
Ethiopia	4.4 (4.3; 4.9)
Mexico	4.4 (4.3; 4.9)
Sudan	3.5 (3.4; 3.9)
Argentina	3.3 (3.2; 3.6)
China	3.0 (3.0; 3.3)
Brazil	2.5 (2.5; 2.8)
Australia	1.6 (1.6; 1.8)
World Total	61.4 (60.4; 67.7)

Sorghum requires an average temperature of at least 25 °C (77 °F) to produce maximum grain yields in a given year. Maximum photosynthesis is achieved at daytime temperatures of at least 30 °C (86 °F). Night time temperatures below 13 °C (55 °F) for more than a few days can severely reduce the plants' potential grain production. Sorghum cannot be planted until soil temperatures have reached 17 °C (63 °F). The long growing season, usually 90–120 days, causes yields to be severely decreased if plants are not in the ground early enough.

Grain sorghum is usually planted with a commercial corn seeder at a depth of 2–5 centimetres (3⁄4–2 in), depending on the density of the soil (shallower in heavier soil). The goal in planting, when working with fertile soil, is 50,000 to 300,000 plants per hectare (20,000 to 121,000/acre). Therefore, with an average emergence rate of 75%, sorghum should be planted at a rate of 2–12 kilograms per hectare (1.8–10.7 lb/acre) of seed.

Yields have been found to be boosted by 10–15% when optimum use of moisture and sunlight are available, by planting in 25-centimetre (10 in) rows instead of the conventional 1-metre (3 ft 3 in) rows.

Sorghum, in general, is a very competitive crop, and does well in competition with weeds in narrow rows. Sorghum produces a chemical compound called sorgoleone (an Alkylresorcinol), which the plant uses to combat weeds. The chemical is so effective in preventing the growth of weeds it sometime prohibits the growth of other crops harvested on the same field. To address this problem, researchers at the Agricultural Research Service found two gene sequences believed to be responsible for the enzymes that secrete the chemical compound sorgoleone.[14] The discovery of these gene sequences will help researchers one day in developing sorghum varieties that cause less soil toxicity and potentially target gene sequences in other crops to increase their natural pesticide capabilities, as well.[15]

Insect and diseases are not prevalent in sorghum crops. Birds, however, are a major source of yield loss. Hybrids with higher tannin content and growing the crop in large field blocks are solutions used to combat the birds. The crop may also be attacked by corn earworms, aphids, and some Lepidoptera larvae, including turnip moths.

It is a very high nitrogen-feeding crop. An average hectare producing 6.3 tonnes of grain yield requires 110 kg of nitrogen (242 lb 8 oz for 2.5 long ton/acre; 2.8 short ton/acre), but relatively small amounts of phosphorus and potassium (15 kilograms (33 lb 1 oz) of each).

Sorghum's growth habit is similar to that of maize, but with more side shoots and a more extensively branched root system. The root system is very fibrous, and can extend to a depth of up to 1.2 metres (3 ft 11 in). The plant finds 75% of its water in the top metre of soil, and because of this, in dry areas, the plant's production can be severely affected by the water holding capacity of the soil. The plants require up to 70–100 millimetres (2+3⁄4–4 in) of moisture every 10 days in early stages of growth, and as sorghum progresses through growth stages and the roots penetrate more deeply into the soil to tap into hidden water reserves, the plant needs progressively less water. By the time the seed heads are filling, optimum water conditions are down to about 50 millimetres (2 in) every 10 days. Compacted soil or shallow topsoil can limit the plant's ability to deal with drought by limiting its root system. Since these plants have evolved to grow in hot, dry areas, it is essential to keep the soil from compacting and to grow on land with ample cultivated topsoil.

Wild species of sorghum tend to grow to a height of 1.5–2 metres (4 ft 11 in – 6 ft 7 in); however, due to problems this height created when the grain was being harvested, in recent years, cultivars with genes for dwarfism have been selected, resulting in sorghum that grows to between 60 and 120 centimetres (2 ft 0 in and 3 ft 11 in) tall.

Sorghum's yields are not affected by short periods of drought as severely as other crops such as maize, because it develops its seed heads over longer periods of time, and short periods of water stress do not usually have the ability to prevent kernel development. Even in a long drought severe enough to hamper sorghum production, it will still usually produce some seed on smaller and fewer seed heads. Rarely will one find a kernelless season for sorghum, even under the most adverse water conditions. Sorghum's ability to thrive with less water than maize may be due to its ability to hold water in its foliage better than maize. Sorghum has a waxy coating on its leaves and stems which helps to keep water in the plant, even in intense heat.

Shattercane (weedy S. bicolor) is an unusually problematic weed.[16] Because it intercrosses fairly freely it will take on herbicide resistance traits which are meant to protect the crop and be useful to the farmer.[16] Werle et al., 2016 finds this is governed by genetic distance but all genotypes do this.[16] They also find that it seems impossible at first to completely be rid of Inzen shattercane once it has been produced, even with rotation completely out of sorghum.[16] However by introducing realistic stochasticity they find promising possibilities of stochastic extinction at low levels.[16] Some of these modes produce population dynamics which are chaotic, and some of these progress to extinction.[16]

In arid, less developed regions of the world, sorghum is an important food crop, especially for subsistence farmers. It is used to make such foods as couscous, sorghum flour, porridge and molasses.

Bhakri (jolada rotti in northern Karnataka), a variety of unleavened bread usually made from sorghum, is the staple diet in many parts of India, such as Maharashtra state and northern Karnataka state. In eastern Karnataka and the Rayalaseema area of Andhra Pradesh, roti (jonna rotte) made with sorghum is the staple food.

Popcorn (for size comparison) left, and popped sorghum, right

In South Africa, sorghum meal is often eaten as a stiff porridge much like pap. It is called mabele in Northern Sotho and "brown porridge" in English. The porridge can be served with maswi (soured milk) or merogo (a mixture of boiled greens much like collard greens or spinach).

In Ethiopia, sorghum is fermented to make injera flatbread, and in Sudan it is fermented to make kisra.[17] In India, dosa is sometimes made with a sorghum-grain mixture, but rice is more commonly used in place of sorghum.[17]

In the cuisine of the Southern United States, sorghum syrup was used as a sweet condiment, much as maple syrup was used in the North, usually for biscuits, corn bread, pancakes, hot cereals or baked beans. It is uncommon today.

In Arab cuisine, the unmilled grain is often cooked to make couscous, porridges, soups, and cakes. Many poor use it, along with other flours or starches, to make bread. The seeds and stalks are fed to cattle and poultry. Some varieties have been used for thatch, fencing, baskets, brushes and brooms, and stalks have been used as fuel. Northern Karnataka in India, they make chappathis from jola.</ref>

Sorghum seeds can be popped in the same manner as popcorn (i.e., with oil or hot air, etc.), although the popped kernels are smaller than popcorn (see photo on the right).

Sorghum sometimes is used for making tortillas (e.g., in Central America).[18] In El Salvador, they sometimes use sorghum (maicillo) to make tortillas when there is not enough corn.[19]

Since 2000, sorghum has come into increasing use in homemade and commercial breads and cereals made specifically for the gluten-free diet.

In China, sorghum is the most important ingredient for the production of distilled beverages, such as maotai and kaoliang wine, as seen in the 1987 film Red Sorghum.

In southern Africa, sorghum is used to produce beer, including the local version of Guinness. In recent years, sorghum has been used as a substitute for other grain in gluten-free beer. Although the African versions are not "gluten-free", as malt extract is also used, truly gluten-free beer using such substitutes as sorghum or buckwheat are now available. Sorghum is used in the same way as barley to produce a "malt" that can form the basis of a mash that will brew a beer without gliadin or hordein (together "gluten") and therefore can be suitable for coeliacs or others sensitive to certain glycoproteins.[20]

In December 2006, Anheuser-Busch of St. Louis, Missouri, introduced "Redbridge" beer, which is gluten-free and is produced with sorghum as the main ingredient.

African sorghum beer is a brownish-pink beverage with a fruity, sour taste. Its alcohol content can vary between 1% and 8%. African sorghum beer is high in protein, which contributes to foam stability, giving it a milk-like head. Because this beer is not filtered, its appearance is cloudy and yeasty, and may also contain bits of grain. This beer is said to be very thirst-quenching, even if it is traditionally consumed at room temperature.

African sorghum beer is a popular drink primarily among the black community for historical reasons. It became popular with the black community in South Africa in part because it was exempt from the prohibition that applied only to black people and which was lifted in 1962.

Sorghum beer is also associated with the development of the segregationist "Durban System" in South Africa in the early 20th century. The turn of the 20th century saw growing segregationist tendencies among the white populations of South African towns. Fearful of the alleged diseases of black residents, the white populations of these towns sought to prevent black Africans from gaining permanent residence in urban areas, and separate them from the white communities. Within this context, two municipalities, Durban and Pietermaritzburg, devised a system by which black Africans in their locality would be housed in 'native locations' outside the main towns, with their segregated accommodation paid for from revenues from the municipal monopoly over sorghum beer. This solved the problem of white rate-payers having to foot the cost of segregation, and ensured the whole scheme paid for itself. After the passage of the 1923 Natives (Urban Areas) Act, all municipalities in South Africa were given the powers to enforce racial segregation, and the Durban System was extended throughout the union, ensuring that segregation was paid for from African rents and beerhall monopolies.[21]

Sorghum beer is called bjala in northern Sotho and is traditionally made to mark the unveiling of a loved-one's tombstone. The task of making the beer falls traditionally to women. The process is begun several days before the party, when the women of the community gather together to bring the sorghum and water to a boil in huge cast iron pots over open fires. After the mix has fermented for several days, it is strained - a somewhat labor-intensive task. Sorghum beer is known by many different names in various countries across Africa, including Umqombothi (South Africa) burukuto (Nigeria), pombe (East Africa) and bil-bil (Cameroon). African sorghum beer brewed using grain sorghum undergoes lactic acid fermentation, as well as alcoholic fermentation.

The steps in brewing African sorghum beer are: malting, mashing, souring and alcoholic fermentation. All steps, with the exception of the souring, can be compared to traditional beer brewing.

The souring of African sorghum beer by lactic acid fermentation is responsible for the distinct sour taste. Souring may be initiated using yogurt, sour dough starter cultures, or by spontaneous fermentation. The natural microflora of the sorghum grain maybe also be the source of lactic acid bacteria; a handful of raw grain sorghum or malted sorghum may be mixed in with the wort to start the lactic acid fermentation. Although many lactic acid bacteria strains may be present, Lactobacillus spp. is responsible for the lactic acid fermentation in African sorghum beer.[22]

Commercial African sorghum beer is packaged in a microbiologically active state. The lactic acid fermentation and/or alcoholic fermentation may still be active. For this reason, special plastic or carton containers with vents are used to allow gas to escape. Spoilage is a big safety concern when it comes to African sorghum beer. Packaging does not occur in sterile conditions and many microorganisms may contaminate the beer. Also, using wild lactic acid bacteria increases the chances of spoilage organisms being present. However, the microbiologically active characteristic of the beer also increases the safety of the product by creating competition between organisms.[23] Although aflatoxins from mould were found on sorghum grain, they were not found in industrially produced African sorghum beer.[24]

Sorghum straw (stem fibres) can also be made into excellent wallboard for house building, as well as biodegradable packaging. Since it does not accumulate static electricity, it is also used in packaging materials for sensitive electronic equipment.

Little research has been done to improve sorghum cultivars because the vast majority of sorghum production is done by subsistence farmers. The crop is therefore mostly limited by insects, disease and weeds, rather than by the plant's inherent ability. To improve the plant's viability in sustaining populations in drought-prone areas, a larger capital investment would be necessary to control plant pests and ensure optimum planting and harvesting practices.

In November 2005, however, the US Congress passed a Renewable Fuels Standard as part of the Energy Policy Act of 2005, with the goal of producing 30 billion litres (7.9 billion US gallons) of renewable fuel (ethanol) annually by 2012. Currently, 12% of grain sorghum production in the US is used to make ethanol.

An AP article[25] claims that sorghum-sap-based ethanol has four times the energy yield as corn-based ethanol, but is on par with sugarcane.

The following table shows the nutrient content of sorghum and compares it to major staple foods in a raw form on a dry weight basis to account for their different water contents. Raw forms of these staples, however, are not edible and cannot be digested. These must be prepared and cooked as appropriate for human consumption. In processed and cooked form, the relative nutritional and antinutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably different from that of the raw forms reported in this table. The nutrition value for each staple food in cooked form depends on the cooking method (for example: boiling, baking, steaming, frying, etc.).