Qutb Shahi dynasty

The Qutb Shahi dynasty (Persian: قطب‌‌شاهیان Qotb-Šâhiyân; Urdu: قطب شاہی خاندان Qutb Shāhī Khāndān) was a Persianate[5] Shia Islamic dynasty of Turkoman origin[6][7] that ruled the Sultanate of Golkonda (Persian: سلطنت گلکنده Saltanat-e Golkonde; Urdu: سلطنت گولکنڈہ Saltanat-e Golkunḍa) in southern India.[8][9][10][11] After the collapse of Bahmani Sultanate, the Qutb Shahi dynasty was established in 1512 AD by Sultan-Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk, better known though less correctly referred to in English as "Quli Qutb Shah".

Golconda Sultanate
1518–1687
Flag of Qutb Shahi
Flag of the Qutb Shahis
Golconda map published in 1733 Germany
Golconda map published in 1733 Germany[2]
CapitalGolconda (1519–1591)
Hyderabad (1591–1687)
Common languagesPersian (official)[3]
Telugu (official after 1600)[4]
Deccani Urdu
Religion
Shia Islam
GovernmentMonarchy
Qutb Shah 
• 1512–1543
Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk
• 1543–1550
Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah
• 1550–1550
Subhan Quli Qutb Shah
• 1550–1580
Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah
• 1580-1612
Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah
• 1612-1626
Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah
• 1626–1672
Abdullah Qutb Shah
• 1672-1686
Abul Hasan Qutb Shah
History 
• Established
1518
• Disestablished
1687
CurrencyMohur
Preceded by		Succeeded by
Bahmani Sultanate
Hyderabad Subah
Today part ofIndia

In 1636, Mughal emperor Shah Jahan forced the Qutb Shahis to recognize Mughal suzerainty and pay periodic tributes. The dynasty came to an end in 1687 during the reign of its seventh sultan Abul Hasan Qutb Shah, when the Mughal ruler Aurangzeb arrested and jailed Abul Hasan for the rest of his life in Daulatabad, incorporating Golconda into the Mughal empire.[12][13][14] The kingdom extended from the parts of modern-day states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and Telangana.[15] The Golconda sultanate was constantly in conflict with the Adil Shahis and Nizam Shahis.[14]

The Qutb Shahis were patrons of Persianate Shia culture.[13][9] The official and court language of the Golconda sultanate during the first 90 years of its existence (c. 1512 – 1600) was also Persian. In the early 17th century, however, the Telugu language was elevated to the status of the Persian language, while towards the end of the Qut Shahis' rule, it was the primary court language with Persian used occasionally in official documents. According to Indologist Richard Eaton, as Qutb Shahis adopted Telugu, they started seeing their polity as the Telugu speaking state, with the elites of the sultanate viewing their rulers as "Telugu Sultans".[16]

History

The dynasty's founder, Sultan Quli Khawas Khan Hamdani was born in Hamadan Province, Iran. He belonged to the Qara Qoyunlu, an Iranian Turkmen Muslim tribe and therefore a descendant of Qara Yusuf.[17][18] In the 16th century, he migrated to Delhi with his uncle, Allah-Quli, some of his relatives and friends. Later he migrated south, to the Deccan and served the Bahmani sultan, Mahmood Shah Bahmani II, who was of Deccani Muslim ethnicity.[19][20] He declared the independence of Golconda, after the disintegration of the Bahmani Kingdom into the five Deccan sultanates.[20] Soon after, he declared independence from the Bahmani Sultanate, took the title Qutub Shah, and established the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda. He was later assassinated in 1543 by his son, Jamsheed, who assumed the sultanate.[20] Jamsheed died in 1550 from cancer.[21] Jamsheed's young son reigned for a year, at which time the nobility brought back and installed Ibrahim Quli as sultan.[21]

The early Qutb Shahi sultans prohibited Hindus from observing their religious festivals, states Annemarie Schimmel – a scholar of Islamic studies. During the reign of Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (1580–1611), who was a more tolerant ruler, the Hindus were allowed to observe their religious festivals like Diwali and Holi in open.[22] Later Sultans such as Tana Shah, appointed Brahmin Hindus such as Madanna and Akkanna as ministers in charge of tax collection and exchequer. However, this led to significant factionalism between the Muslim elites and the rising power of the Brahmin Hindus. The Muslim faction reached out to Aurangzeb, who sent a regiment led by his son to attack Golconda. They beheaded Madanna and Akkanna, along with plundering the property and killing many more Hindus in administrative positions of the Qutb Shahi dynasty. Shortly thereafter, the last Sultan of dynasty was jailed in Daulatabad by Aurangzeb, and the Qutb Shahi dynasty came to an end.

Golconda, and with the construction of the Char Minar, later Hyderabad, served as capitals of the sultanate,[20] and both cities were embellished by the Qutb Shahi sultans. The dynasty ruled Golconda for 171 years, until the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb conquered the Deccan in 1687.[23] The territory of the Golconda Sultanate was made into a Mughal imperial province, Hyderabad Subah.[24]

Economy
Tomb of Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah in Hyderabad.

The Golconda Sultanate was notoriously wealthy. While its primary source of revenue was land tax,[25] the sultanate greatly profited from its monopoly on diamond production from mines in the southern districts of the kingdom. The sultanate also had control over the Krishna and Godavari deltas, giving it access to craft production in the villages of the area, where goods like textiles were produced. The town of Masulipatnam served as the Golconda Sultanate's primary seaport for the export of diamonds and textiles. The kingdom reached the peak of its financial prosperity in the 1620s and 1630s.[26][27]

Cotton-Weaving

During the early seventeenth century, a strong cotton-weaving industry existed in the Deccan region. Large quantities of cotton cloth were produced for domestic and exports consumption. High quality plain and patterned cloth made of muslin and calico was produced. Plain cloth was available as white or brown colour, in bleached or dyed variety. This cloth was exported to Persia and European countries. Patterned cloth was made of prints which were made indigenously with indigo for blue, chay-root for red coloured prints and vegetable yellow. Patterned cloth exports were mainly to Java, Sumatra and other eastern countries.[28] Golconda had a strong trading relationship with Ayutthaya Siam.[29]

Diamonds
Main article: Golconda diamonds

The Golconda Sultanate was known for its diamonds which were dubbed the Golconda diamonds. These diamonds were sought after diamonds long before the Qutb Shahi dynasty came to power, and they continued to supply this demand through the European traders.[30]

Diamonds from mines (especially the Kollur Mine presently in Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh) were transported to the city of Hyderabad to be cut, polished, evaluated and sold. Golconda established itself as a diamond trading centre and until the end of the 19th century, the Golconda market was the primary source of the finest and largest diamonds in the world.[31]

Culture
Golkonda Painting, 1650-1670 Opaque watercolor and gold on paper Overall
Music in Golkonda, 1660–1670. Musician plays a form of rubab.

The Qutb Shahis were patrons of Persianate Shia culture.[13][9] Over the first 90 years of their rule (c. 1512 – 1600), they championed Persian culture. Their official edicts and court language was in Persian only.[16] Quli Qutb Mulk's court became a haven for Persian culture and literature.[14] In early 17th-century, with Sultan Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (1580–1612) a change began. He began to patronize the Telugu language and culture as well. Edicts began to be issued both in Persian and Telugu. Towards the end of the dynasty, these were primarily in Telugu with a summary in Persian. As they adopted Telugu, they saw their territory as the Telugu speaking region, states Indologist Richard Eaton, with their elites considering the rulers as "Telugu Sultans".[16]

Sultan Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (1580–1612) wrote poems in Dakhini Urdu, Persian and Telugu.[9] Subsequent poets and writers, however wrote in Urdu, while using vocabulary from Persian, Hindi and Telugu languages.[9] During the reign of Abdullah Qutb Shah in 1634 AD, an ancient Sanskrit text on love and sex Ratirahasya by Kokkoka was translated into Persian and named Lazzat-un-Nisa (Flavors of the Woman).[32]

Architecture

The Qutb Shahi architecture was Indo-Islamic, a culmination of Indian and Persian architectural styles.[33] Their style was very similar to that of the other Deccan Sultanates. The Qutb Shahi rulers built the Char Minar.[9]

Some examples of Qutb Shahi Indo-Islamic architecture are the Golconda Fort, tombs of the Qutb Shahis, Char Minar and the Char Kaman, Mecca Masjid, Khairtabad Mosque, Hayat Bakshi Mosque, Taramati Baradari and the Toli Mosque.[33][34]

Administration
The Bahmani Kingdom, Kandesh, and the Five Sultanates

The Qutb Shahi Kingdom was a highly centralized state. The sultan enjoyed absolute executive judicial and military powers. When he was away, a regent carried to carry on the administration on behalf of the king. The Peshwa (Prime Minister) was the highest official of the sultanate. He was assisted by a number of ministers, including Mir Jumla (finance minister), Kotwal (police commissioner), and Khazanadar (treasurer).

For most of their reign, the Qutb Shahi sultanate had a system of jagirs, who would provide troops as well as collect taxes. They were allowed to keep a portion of the taxes and give the sultan the rest. Tax collection was through auction farms, the highest bidder used to get the Governorship. While the Governors enjoyed luxurious life style, they had to bear the brunt of severe punishments for default, consequently they were harsh on the people.[28] Tana Shah – the last Sultan, with advice from his Brahmin ministers responsible for tax collection, introduced a reform whereby all taxes were collected by civil professionals for a region. The soldiers, government workers, court officials and all the Muslim elites were paid allowances from the Sultan's treasury. These reforms brought a large increase in revenues.

According to Moreland, in the earlier system, the Persian origin Muslims were paid the highest, then the other Indian Muslims. In early 17th century, the Persian origin Muslims became rich by lending money on high interest (usury) of 4-5% per mensem much to the despair of Hindus.[28]

The Sultanate had 66 forts, and each fort was administered by a Nayak.[35] In the second half of the 17th century, the Qutb Shahi Sultan hired many Hindu Nayaks. According to Kruijtzer, these were mainly Brahmins. According to another account, these were mainly from the Kamma, Velama, Kapu, and Raju warrior castes.[36] They served as civil revenue officers. After the Mughals dismissed the Qutb Shahi dynasty in 1687, these Hindu Nayaks were also dismissed and replaced with Muslim military commanders.[37][36][38]

Administrative divisions
The Golconda Sultanate and main South Asian polities circa 1525 AD, on the eve of the establishment of the Mughal Empire.[39]

The sultanate in 1670 comprised 21 sarkars (provinces) which in turn were divided into 355 parganas (districts).

Administrative divisions of Golconda sultanate[40][41]
S.No. Name of
Sarkar		 Number of
Paraganas
1 Muhammadnagar
(Golconda)		 22
2 Medak 16
3 Melangūr 3
4 Elangandel 21
5 Warangal 16
6 Khammamēṭ 11
7 Dēvarkoṇḍa 13
8 Pangal 5
9 Mustafanagar
(Kondapalli)		 24
10 Bhoṇgīr 11
11 Akarkara 6
12 Kovilkoṇdā 13
13 Ghanpura 8
14 Murtaza Nagar
with three tarafs		 39
15 Machilipatnam 8
16 Ellore 12
17 Rajahmundry 24
18 Chicacole
(Srikakulam) with 3 tarafs		 115
19 Kaulas 5
20 Nizampatnam Mahal 1
21 Karnatak including Arcot taraf
(It had 16 sarkars)		 162[41]

Religion

The Qutb Shahi dynasty, like many Deccan Islamic dynasties, was a Shia Islam dynasty with roots in Persia (modern Iran). Initially they were very strict and they persecuted the Hindus who constituted the vast majority of the population. Open practice of Hindu festivals was forbidden in Golconda Sultanate. It was Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah who first reversed this policy, and allowed Hindus to practice their festivals and religion in open.[42][43]

In the final decades of their rule, the Qutb Shahi dynasty rulers patronized Shia, Sufi, Sunni Islamic traditions, as well as the Hindu traditions. Prior to their end, Tana Shah advised by Madanna and Akkanna –his Brahmin ministers, began the tradition of sending pearls to the Bhadrachalam Temple of Rama on Rama Navami.[44]

Rulers

The eight sultans in the dynasty were:

Personal Name Titular Name Reign Notes
From Until
Sultan Quli
سلطان قلی		 Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk 1512 1543
Jamsheed
جمشید		 Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah 1543 1550
Subhan
سبحان		 Subhan Quli Qutb Shah 1550 1550
Ibrahim
ابراہیم		 Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah Wali 1550 1580
Muhammad Ali
محمد علی		 Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah 1580 1612
Sultan Muhammad
محمد سلطان		 Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah 1612 1626
Abdullah
عبداللہ		 Abdullah Qutb Shah 1626 1672
Abul Hasan
ابُل حسن		 Tana Shah 1672 1686

Tombs
Main article: Qutb Shahi Tombs

The tombs of the Qutb Shahi sultans lie about one kilometer north of Golkonda's outer wall. These structures are made of beautifully carved stonework, and surrounded by landscaped gardens. They are open to the public and receive many visitors.[34]

Family tree
Qara Yusuf
c. 1356-1420
Sultan of Qara Qoyunlu
R.1389-1420
Qara Iskander
?-1436
Sultan of Qara Qoyunlu
R.1421-1429,
1431-1436		Jahan Shah
1397/1405-1467
Sultan of Qara Qoyunlu
R.1438-1467
Alvand Mirza
?-1470		Mirza Yusuf
?-1469
Sultan of Qara Qoyunlu
R.1468-1469
Pir Quli BegKhadija Khatun
Uways Quli Beg
1.
Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk
1485-1543
Sultan of Golconda
R.1518-1543
4.
Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah Wali
1518-1580
Sultan of Golconda
R.1550-1580		2.
Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah
?-1550
Sultan of Golconda
R.1543-1550
Mirza Muhammad Amin5.
Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah
1565-1612
Sultan of Golconda
R.1580-1612		3.
Subhan Quli Qutb Shah
1543-1550
Sultan of Golconda
R.1550
6.
Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah
1593-1626
Sultan of Golconda
R.1612-1626		Hayat Bakshi Begum
?-1667
7.
Abdullah Qutb Shah
1614-1672
Sultan of Golconda
R.1626-1672
8.
Abul Hasan Qutb Shah
?-1699
Sultan of Golconda
R.1672-1687		Badshah Bibi
Khuda Banda

See also

References
  1. For a map of their territory see: Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 147, map XIV.4 (l). ISBN 0226742210.
  2. For a map of their territory see: Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 147, map XIV.4 (l). ISBN 0226742210.
  3. Brian Spooner and William L. Hanaway, Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 317.
  4. Alam, Muzaffar (1998). "The pursuit of Persian: Language in Mughal Politics". Modern Asian Studies. 32 (2): 317–349. doi:10.1017/s0026749x98002947. S2CID 146630389. Ibrahim Qutb Shah encouraged the growth of Telugu and his successor Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah patronized and himself wrote poetry in Telugu and in Dakhni. Abdullah Qutb Shah instituted a special office to prepare the royal edicts in Telugu (dabiri-ye faramin-i Hindavi). While administrative and revenue papers at local levels in the Qutb Shahi Sultanate were prepared largely in Telugu, the royal edicts were often bilingual. '06 The last Qutb Shahi Sultan, Abul Hasan Tana Shah, sometimes issued his orders only in Telugu, with a Persian summary given on the back of the farmans.
  5. Christoph Marcinkowski, Shi'ite Identities: Community and Culture in Changing Social Contexts, 169-170; "The Qutb-Shahi kingdom could be considered 'highly Persianate' with a large number of Persian-speaking merchants, scholars, and artisans present at the royal capital."
  6. Syed, Muzaffar Husain (2011). Concise History of Islam. Vij Books India Private Limited. p. 258. ISBN 978-9-382-57347-0. The Qutb Shahi dynasty was the ruling family of the sultanate of Golkonda in southern India. They were Shia Muslims and belonged to a Turkmen tribe.
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Further reading
  • Chopra, R. M., The Rise, Growth And Decline of Indo-Persian Literature, 2012, Iran Culture House, New Delhi.
  • Jawed Vashisht, Ghizal-e Raana (A selection of Quli Qutab Shah's ghazals)
  • Jawed Vashisht, Roop Ras (Romantic poems of Quli Qutab Shah)
  • Jawed Vashisht, Mohammed Quli aur Nabi ka Sadka
  • Jawed Vashisht, Dakhni Darpan
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Hyderabad.
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