Timeline of the Palestine region

The timeline of the Palestine region is a timeline of major events in the history of Palestine. For more details on the history of Palestine see History of Palestine. In cases where the year or month is uncertain, it is marked with a slash, for example 636/7 and January/February.

Satellite image of the Palestine region from 2003

Mesozoic/Cenozoic geological eras

Palaeolithic
The Qesem Cave was occupied by prehistoric humans at approximately 420,000–220,000 BCE .

Epipalaeolithic
See also: Epipalaeolithic Near East
  • c. 9000 BCE – Natufian hunter-gatherer groups form a permanent settlement that would come to be known as Jericho.

Neolithic

Neolithic (8,500–4,500 BCE).[4]

Chalcolithic (Copper Age)

Chalcolithic (4,500–3,500 BCE).[4]

Bronze Age

Early Bronze Age

Early Bronze Age (3,500–2,350 BCE).[4]

Intermediate Bronze Age

Intermediate Bronze Age (2,350–2000 BCE).

Middle Bronze Age

Middle Bronze Age (2000–1550 BCE).[4]

Late Bronze Age

Late Bronze Age (1550–1200 BCE).[4]

Iron Age

Iron Age I

Iron Age I (1200–1000 BCE).[4]

IAI can be split into Iron Age IA (1200–1150 BCE) and Iron Age IB (1150–1000 BCE).[4]

Iron Age II

Iron Age II (1000–586 BCE).[4]

IAII can be split into Iron Age IIA (1000–900 BCE), Iron Age IIB (900–700 BCE), and Iron Age IIc (700–586 BCE).[4]

Main article: History of ancient Israel and Judah

Babylonian and Persian periods
Main articles: Samaritans § History, Yehud (Babylonian province), and Yehud (Persian province)

Babylonian and Persian periods (586–332 BCE).[4]

The Babylonian period began with the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar II in 587 or 586 BCE. The Persian period spans the years 539–332 BCE, from the time Cyrus II of Persia ("the Great") conquered the Neo-Babylonian Empire, to the conquest of the region by Alexander the Great.

Hellenistic period

The Hellenistic period began with Alexander the Great's conquest of Palestine in 332 BCE and ended with Pompey's conquest of Palestine in 63 BCE. Alternatively, it can be considered to end with the victory of Rome's client king, Herod the Great, over the last Hasmonean king of Judea in 37 BCE.[4]

  • c. 260 BCE – Beit She'an is refounded as the poleis Scythopolis by Ptolemy II Philadelphus.[8]
  • 200 BCE – The Seleucid emperor Antiochus III the Great conquers Palestine.[9]
    Model of the Second Temple at the Israel Museum
  • 175 BCE:
  • 174 BCE – Antiochus appoints Jason as high priest of the Jerusalem Temple.[12]
  • 172 BCE – Antiochus replaces Jason with Menelaus as high priest of the Jerusalem Temple as the latter offers to pay a much bigger tribute.[13]
  • Late 170 BCE/early 169 BCE – Antiochus invades Egypt but decides to return. Perhaps because of disturbances in Palestine. His return is triumphant and he brings many spoils.[14]
  • 169 BCE, autumn – On his way back from Egypt, Antiochus raids the Jerusalem Temple and confiscates its treasures.[15]
  • 168 BCE, spring – Antiochus invades Egypt but the Romans force him to withdraw.[16] Meanwhile, rumors spread in Judea that the king has died and Jason launches a surprise attack on Jerusalem, captures the city, and kills supporters of his rival Menelaus.[17] Antiochus interprets Jason's attack as a rebellion and sends an army that retakes Jerusalem and drives Jason's followers away.[18]
  • 167 BCE, autumn – Antiochus IV Epiphanes outlaws Judaism in Judea and allows pagan worship at the Jerusalem temple.[19]
  • 165 BCE, spring – Antiochus campaigns against the Parthians.[20]
  • 164 BCE:
    • spring – Antiochus issues a letter repealing the ban on Judaism and promising amnesty for the insurgents who return before March 164. The provincial land-tax from 167 BCE is abolished. The Maccabees does not take up the Seleucids offer and the insurgency continues.[21]
    • summer – The Maccabees carries out a number of punitive expeditions, likely led by Judas, against people who had participated in the persecution against Jews.[22]
    • autumn/winter – Judas enters Jerusalem and the altar to Zeus and other pagan artifacts are removed from the Temple.[23] Meanwhile, Antiochus dies in Persis,[24] igniting a century-long war of succession in Antioch, the capital of the Seleucid empire.[25]
  • 161 BCE – Judas Maccabeus is killed in battle and his army is routed.[26]
  • 152 BCE – Jonathan Apphus is appointed high priest of the Jerusalem temple by the Seleucids.[27]
  • c. 145 BCE – The Seleucid ruler Demetrius II Nicator lets Judea annex the three southern Samarian districts Lydda, Aphairema, and Ramathaim.[27]
  • 135/4 BCE – John Hyrcanus becomes Hasmonean king.[28]
  • 129 BCE – The Seleucid emperor Antiochus VII Sidetes dies.[29]
  • c. 112–107 BCE – The Hasmoneans destroy the Samaritan temple at Mount Gerizim and devastates Shechem.[30]
  • c. 108/7 BCE – The Hasmoneans destroy Scythopolis.[8]
  • 104 BCE – Aristobulus I succeeds Hyrcanus as king of Judea.[31]
  • 103 BCE – Alexander Jannaeus succeeds Aristobulus. He greatly extends the Hasmonean kingdom, concentrating on Greek cities along the Palestinian coast.[32]
  • 76 BCE – Hyrcanus II succeeds Alexander Jannaeus.[33]
Birth of Jesus (painting by Gerard van Honthorst from 1622)

Roman period

The Roman period lasted from Pompey's conquest of Palestine in 66 BCE, until the legal establishment of Christianity in the realm. Suggestions for the end date vary between the Edict of Milan in 313 CE by which Constantine the Great declares Christianity a permitted religion, and the declaration of Nicene Christianity as the sole state religion by three co-emperors including Theodosius, emperor of the East, through the Edict of Thessalonica of 380.

  • 63 BCE – Roman troops occupy Palestine.[35]
  • 57–54 BCE – Scythopolis is rebuilt by the Roman proconsul Gabinius.[8]
  • 47 BCE:
    • Herod the Great is appointed governor of Galilee.[36]
    • Herod clears out Hezekiah's "brigands,"[37] who had been harassing people in southern Syria.
  • 40 BCE:
  • 37 BCE – Herod the Great conquers Judea with the help of Roman and Jewish troops. Antigonus II Mattathias, who had barricaded himself in the city, is beheaded by Mark Antony.[40]
  • 31 BCE – 31 BC Judea earthquake. A powerful earthquake occurs in Judea.[41]
  • 27 BCE – King Herod rebuilds Samaria and renames it Sebastia.[42]
  • 23 BCE – King Herod builds a palace and fortress called Herodium, about 7.5 miles (12 km) south of Jerusalem.[43]
  • 22 BCE – Herod begins construction of a new city and harbor called Caesarea Maritima at the old settlement Straton's Tower.[44]
  • 20 BCE:
    • Herod is awarded large swathes of northern territory by emperor Augustus to add to his kingdom.[45]
    • Citizens of Gadara appeal to Augustus to be excluded from Herod's kingdom.[46]
  • 19 BCE – King Herod the Great further extends the Temple Mount's natural plateau and rebuilds the temple.[47]
  • c. 10 BCE – Caesarea is completed.[48]
  • 7 BCE - Herod has his two sons, Alexander and Aristobulus, executed.[49]
  • 7–2 BCE – Birth of Jesus.[50]
  • 4 BCE – Herod dies and a wave of unrest sweeps Palestine.[51]
  • 6 CE:
    • Leading Jews and Samaritans ask Augustus to remove Herod Archelaus from the throne. He obliges and Archelaus is deposed and exiled. His territory, consisting of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea, is organized into the Roman district Iudaea.[52]
    • First Roman census of Judea.[53]
The destruction of Jewish Temple (painting by David Roberts from 1850)

Byzantine period
Church of the Holy Sepulchre (photo from 1900)

Allowing for varying starting dates (see above under Roman period), this timeline chooses for convenience's sake to set the starting year of the Byzantine period as 313, when Constantine declared Christianity a permitted religion. The period ends with the Muslim conquest of Palestine in 637–641.

The Madaba Map depiction of 6th-century Jerusalem

Early Muslim period
The Dome of the Rock (photograph from 1856)

Rashidun period
  • 637 (or 638) – Jerusalem falls to the armies of Rashidun caliph Umar Ibn el-Khatab.[89] Jews are permitted to return to the city after 568 years of Roman and Byzantine rule.[90]
    • June/July – The Rashiduns capture Gaza.[89]
    • summer – Ascalon surrenders to the Rashiduns.[89]
    • late – The Rashiduns and the Byzantines consent to a truce.[89]
  • 640 – The Rashiduns capture Caesarea.[72]
  • 641 – The Rashiduns capture Ashkelon, completing their conquest of the Holy Land.
  • 659 – Earthquake.[91]

Umayyad period

Abbasid period
  • 747–750 – Civil war resulting in the overthrow of the Umayyads; the Abbasid family seize control of the caliphate.[97]
  • 758 – The Caliph Al-Mansur visits Jerusalem and possibly orders the renovation of the Dome of the Rock.[98]
  • 762 – The Abbasids found Baghdad and designate it the caliphate's new capital.[99]
  • 792/3 – War between the tribes of Palestine[100]
  • 796 – Battles between the tribes of Palestine.[101]
  • 799 – The Patriarch of Jerusalem sends a mission to the Frankish king Charlemagne and the latter returns the favor.[102]
  • c. 800 – The Jewish High Council, headed by Gaon, moves from Tiberias to Jerusalem.[103]
  • 800 – The Patriarch of Jerusalem sends another mission to Charlemagne carrying the keys to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, together with a banner.[104]
  • 807 – A rebellion breaks out. Led by Abu'l-Nida', it has its epicenter in Eilat.[105]
  • 813 – Earthquake.[106]
  • c. 820 – The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is repaired.[107]
  • 820 – Basil is appointed patriarch of Jerusalem.[108]
  • 855 – Solomon is appointed patriarch of Jerusalem.[107]
  • 885 – The Abbasids reconquer Damascus.[109]
  • 873 – The governor of Egypt, Ahmad Ibn Tulun, breaks with the Abbasids and establishes independent rule.[109]
  • 878 – The Tulunids occupy most of the former Byzantine Diocese of the East, enabling them to defend Egypt against Abbasid attacks.[110]
  • 879 – Elias III is appointed patriarch of Jerusalem.[111]
  • c. 881 – Elias III of Jerusalem appeals to the Franks.[112]
  • c. 903 – Persian geographer Ibn al-Faqih visits Jerusalem.[113]
  • 905/6 – The Abbasids regain control of Palestine.[109]
  • 908/9 – Al-Muqtadir forbids Christians from serving in administrative positions.[114]
  • c. 913 – Spanish scholar Ibn Abd Rabbih visits Jerusalem.[113]
  • 935 – Al-Ikhshid takes control of Egypt and establishes independent rule.[109]
  • 937 March 26 – Rioting Muslims burn down the Church of the Resurrection and loot the Chapel of Golgotha.[115]
  • 939:
  • 946 July – Sayf al-Dawla invades Palestine.[117]
  • 966 – A Muslim-Jewish mob torches the Church of Resurrection, plunders it, and kills Jerusalem's Patriarch John VII.[118]

Fatimid period
  • 969/70 – The Fatimids, a self-proclaimed Shia caliphate, defeat the Ikhshidids and appoint a Jewish governor.[109]
  • 971 – The Qarmatians attack Damascus.[109]
    • September 5 – The Qarmatians conquer Ramla.[119]
    • December – The Fatimids ward off a Qarmatian invasion near Fustat.[119]
  • 972 or 975 – Byzantine emperor John I Tzimiskes leads an expedition that reaches as far south as Caesarea and Tiberias in Palestine.[120]
  • 975:
    • winter – The Turkish officer Alptakin conquers Sidon and slaughters the population.[121]
    • spring – Alptakin conquers Tiberias.[122]
    • April – Alptakin conquers Damascus.[122]
  • 977 March 12 – Ramla is again conquered by the Qarmatians.[123]
  • 978:
    • Joseph II is appointed patriarch of Jerusalem.[123]
    • August 15 – A massive Fatimid army defeats Alptakin and the Qarmatians in southern Palestine.[124]
  • 978–979 winter – The Jewish Fatimid general tries to negotiate with the leader of the Hamdanids, but their leader Abu Taghlib refuses because Fadl is a Jew.[125] He later agrees to negotiations with Fadl who offers him Ramla in exchange for ousting the Jarrahids.[126]
  • 979 August – Abu Taghlib launches a failed offensive on Ramla and is taken captive and executed.[126]
  • 981:
    • June – Damascus is besieged by a Fatimid army.[123]
    • July – The Bedouins, led by the Jarrahids, rebel against the Fatimids.[127]
  • 983 July 5 – Damascus is conquered by a Fatimid army.[123]
  • 984 – Orestes is appointed patriarch of Jerusalem.[123]
  • 991 February 24 – Ya'qub ibn Killis dies.[128]
  • 996–998 – Revolt in Tyre. The rebels call for and receive support from the Byzantines. The Fatimids put the city under siege and it falls in May 998. The rebel leader is tortured and crucified.[129]
  • 1006–1007 – Russian abbot Daniel makes pilgrimage to Palestine.[130]
  • 1008 – Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah forbids Jerusalem Christians from performing the Palm Sunday procession.[106]
  • 1009 October 18 – Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah orders the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.[131]
  • 1011–1013 February – Uprising of the Yemenite Djarrahid Bedouin tribe who seize Ramla and establish a mini-caliphate.[132]
  • 1012 – Beginning of al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah's oppressive decrees against Christians and Jews.[133]
  • 1015 September 4 – Earthquake. The dome of the Dome of the Rock collapses.[134]
  • 1021 February 13 – Caliph Al-Hakim is assassinated and succeeded by his son al-Zahir.[135]
  • 1024 September – Bedouin rebellion erupts over tax-collecting privileges (iqta'a). The Bedouins attack and loot Ramla and Tiberias.[136]
  • 1026–1027 – Richard of Verdun makes pilgrimage to Palestine.[137]
  • 1027 – A treaty is signed between the Byzantine emperor and the Fatimid caliph. It permits the rebuilding of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and allows Christians who had converted to Islam under duress to return to their former faith. It also granted the emperor the right to designate the patriarch of Jerusalem. In return, the mosque of Constantinople would be reopened.[138]
  • 1029 – Anushtakin defeats a Bedouin coalition that challenges Fatimid rule in Palestine and Syria.[139]
  • 1032 – Renovations of the Dome of the Rock ordered by Caliph al-Zahir are finished.[140]
  • 1033:
  • 1047 – Persian poet and traveler Nasir Khusraw visits Palestine.[143]
  • 1063 – The Fatimids strengthen or rebuild the walls of Jerusalem.[144]
  • 1064–1065 – The Great German Pilgrimage takes place.[145]
  • 1068 – An earthquake destroys Ramla, killing an estimated 15,000.[146]
  • 1071 – The Seljuk Turks invade large portions of West Asia, including Asia Minor and the Eastern Mediterranean; they capture Ramla and lay siege to Jerusalem.[147]
  • 1073 – The Seljuks invade Palestine.[148]
  • 1075:
    • The Seljuks capture Damascus.[147]
    • A severe drought hits Palestine.[149]
  • 1077 – The Seljuks capture Jaffa.[147]
  • 1089 – The Fatimids conquer Tyre.[150]
  • 1092–1095 – Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi stays in Jerusalem.[151]
  • 1093 – Muslims in coastal communities bar Christians from entering Palestine.[152]
  • 1095 November 27 – Pope Urban II launches the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont. Its principal objectives are Catholic reconquest of the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land, and the freeing of Eastern Christians from Islamic rule.
  • 1098:
    • July – The Fatimids lay siege to Jerusalem.[144]
    • August 26 – The Fatimids recapture Jerusalem.[153]

Crusader/Ayyubid period
Main article: Timeline of the Kingdom of Jerusalem
Conquest of Jerusalem in 1099 during the First Crusade (painting from the 19th century)

The Crusader period, sometimes referred to as the medieval period, as it was the only time when the Western-type societal organisation was transplanted to the region, lasted from 1099 when the Crusaders captured Jerusalem, to 1291 when the Kingdom of Jerusalem's last major possession in the Holy Land, Acre, was overrun by the Mamluks. In part of that period, almost every part of the territory changed hands repeatedly between the Crusaders and the Ayyubids.

Mamluk period

The Mamluk period lasted from 1291 when the Mamluks capture Acre, to 1517 when the Ottomans conquered Palestine.

Ottoman period

16th century
Walls of Jerusalem (photo taken in 2005)

17th century

18th century
Battle of Nazareth (painting by Antoine-Jean Gros from 1801)

19th century
Galilee earthquake of 1837
Ottoman machine gunners during the Second Battle of Gaza, 1917
Emir Feisal and Chaim Weizmann during their meeting in 1918

20th century

OETA and Mandatory Palestine
1927 Jericho earthquake: Destruction in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem
1948: declaration of the establishment of the State of Israel
Palestinian Arab refugees in 1948

Israel, Jordan-occupied West Bank, Egypt-occupied Gaza
  • 1948 May 14 – Israeli Declaration of Independence: Jewish leadership in the region of Palestine announces the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz-Israel, to be known as the State of Israel.[191]
  • 1948 May 14–1949 January 7 – The 1948 Arab–Israeli War: a large-scale war between Israel and five Arab countries and the Palestinian-Arabs. The war results in an Israeli victory, with Israel annexing territory beyond the borders of the proposed Jewish state and into the borders of the proposed Arab state and West Jerusalem.[192] Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Egypt signed the 1949 Armistice Agreements with Israel. The Gaza Strip and the West Bank, were occupied by Egypt and Transjordan, respectively, until 1967. In 1951, the UN Conciliation Commission for Palestine estimated that some 711,000 Palestinian refugees were displaced by the war.[193]
  • 1949:
    • February 24 – Israel and Egypt sign an armistice agreement.[194]
    • March 23 – Israel and Lebanon sign an armistice agreement.[194]
    • April 3 – Israel and Jordan sign an armistice agreement.[194]
    • July 20 – Israel and Syria sign an armistice agreement.[194]
  • 1950 Spring – Jordan annexes the West Bank.[194]
  • 1956 October 29–November 5 – The Sinai Campaign. This war followed Egypt's decision of 26 July 1956 to nationalize the Suez Canal. Initiated by United Kingdom and France, the war was conducted in cooperation with Israel, and aimed at occupying the Sinai Peninsula, with the Europeans regaining control over the Suez Canal. Although the Israeli occupation of the Sinai was successful, the US and USSR forced it to abandon this conquest. Israel, however, managed to re-open the Straits of Tiran and secure its southern border.
  • 1967 June 5–10 – The Six-Day War between Israel and all of its neighboring countries: Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon which were aided by other Arab countries. The war lasted for six days and concluded with Israel expanding its territory significantly — Gaza Strip and Sinai from Egypt, the West Bank and Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria.

Israel and the occupied Palestinian territories
  • 1973 October 6–24 – The Yom Kippur War was fought. The war began with a surprise joint attack on two fronts by the armies of Syria (in the Golan Heights) and Egypt (in the Suez Canal), deliberately initiated during the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur. The Egyptian Army got back Sinai that was occupied by the Israeli armies for almost 7 years.
  • 1974 – The PLO is allowed to represent the Palestinian Arab refugees in the UN as their sole political representative organisation.
  • 1978 September 18 – Israel and Egypt sign a comprehensive peace agreement at Camp David which included a condition of Israel's withdrawal from the Rest of Sinai.
  • 1979 March 26 – The peace treaty with Egypt was signed by the Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin, the Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and U.S. President Jimmy Carter.
  • 1982 June–December – The First Lebanon War took place during which Israel invaded southern Lebanon due to the constant terror attacks on northern Israel by the Palestinian guerrilla organizations resident there. The war resulted in the expulsion of the PLO from Lebanon, and created an Israeli Security Zone in southern Lebanon.
  • 1984 November 21–1985 January 5 – Operation Moses: IDF forces conduct a secret operation in which approximately 8,000 Ethiopian Jews were brought to Israel from Sudan.
  • 1987–1991 – The First Intifada: The first Palestinian uprising took place in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank against the Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territories.
  • 1988 November 15 – Palestinian Declaration of Independence (1988) – The Palestinian National Council, the legislative body of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), in Algiers on 15 November 1988 unilaterally proclaimed the establishment of a new independent state called the "State of Palestine".
  • 1991 May 24–25 – Operation Solomon: IDF forces conduct a secret operation in which approximately 14,400 Ethiopian Jews were brought to Israel within 34 hours in 30 IAF and El Al aircraft.
1993: Bill Clinton , Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat after signing the Oslo Accords
Summer 2006: The Second Lebanon War (photograph taken on August 15, 2006)
  • 2002 June – As a result of the significant increase of suicide bombing attacks within Israeli population centers during the first years of the Second Intifada, Israel began the construction of the West Bank Fence along the Green Line border arguing that the barrier is necessary to protect Israeli civilians from Palestinian militants. The significantly reduced number of incidents of suicide bombings from 2002 to 2005 has been partly attributed to the barrier.[195] The barrier's construction, which has been highly controversial, became a major issue of contention between the two sides.
  • 2005 August 23 – Israel's unilateral disengagement plan: The evacuation of 25 Jewish settlements in the Gaza Strip and West Bank is completed.
  • 2006 July 12–August 14 – The Second Lebanon War took place, which began as a military operation in response to the abduction of two Israeli reserve soldiers by the Hezbollah, and gradually grew to a wider conflict. 1,191 Lebanese were killed, 4,409 were injured.
  • 2008 December 27–2009 January 18 – Operation Cast Lead: IDF forces conducted a large-scale military operation in the Gaza Strip during which dozens of targets were attacked in the Gaza Strip in response to ongoing rocket fire on the western Negev. 1,291 Palestinians were killed.
  • 2012:
    • November 14–November 21 – Operation Pillar of Cloud: IDF forces launches a large-scale military operation in the Gaza Strip in response to Palestinian militants firing over a hundred rockets from the Gaza Strip into southern Israel beginning on 10 November, with the aims of restoring quiet to southern Israel and to strike at what it considers terror organizations.[196] The operation officially began with the assassination of Ahmed Jabari, chief of the Gaza military wing of Hamas.[197] 158 Palestinians were killed.
    • November 29 – United Nations General Assembly resolution 67/19: Upgrading of Palestine to non-member observer state status in the United Nations.[198]
  • 2016 December 23 – United Nations Security Council resolution 2334: Condemning Israeli occupation of Palestinian lands.[199]
  • 2017 December 6 – US President Donald Trump announced the United States recognition of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.[200]
  • 2023 October 7 – 2023 Israel–Hamas war: Hamas launched a large-scale offensive against Israel, during which Hamas initially fired thousands of rockets at Israel from the Gaza Strip, while at the same time over a thousand Palestinian militants broke through the border and entered Israel by foot and with motor vehicles, as they engaged in gun battles with the Israeli security forces, conducting massacres and shootings of Israeli civilians, took over Israeli towns and military bases, as well as kidnapped over 200 Israeli soldiers and civilians. As a result Israel's Security Cabinet formally declares war for the first time since the Yom Kippur War in 1973.[201]

See also

Notes and references

Citations
  1. Vertebrates – dinosaurs – University of Copenhagen
  2. Discovery Online, Discovery News Brief
  3. Fornai, Cinzia; Benazzi, Stefano; Gopher, Avi; Barkai, Ran; Sarig, Rachel; Bookstein, Fred L.; Hershkovitz, Israel; Weber, Gerhard W. (2016). "The Qesem Cave hominin material (part 2): A morphometric analysis of dm2-QC2 deciduous lower second molar". Quaternary International. 398: 175–189. Bibcode:2016QuInt.398..175F. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.11.102. ISSN 1040-6182. The Qesem Cave...site...has yielded...teeth associated to the...(AYCC) and dated to about 420-220 ka.
  4. Negev, Avraham; Gibson, Shimon, eds. (2001). Chronological Tables. p. 556. ISBN 0-8264-1316-1. Retrieved 26 September 2021. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help) (Snippet view).
  5. Davis, Paul K. 100 Decisive Battles. Oxford University Press.
  6. Joseph P. Free, Howard F. Vos. 1992. Archaeology and Bible history. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-310-47961-1
  7. Burgess, Henry (2003). Journal of Sacred Literature and Biblical Record, April 1855 to July 1855. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7661-5612-8.
  8. Wagemakers 2014, p. 219.
  9. Schwartz 2009, p. 53; Bourgel 2019, p. 2
  10. Gera 1998, p. 109.
  11. Lendering, Antiochus IV Epiphanes; Britannica, Antiochus IV Epiphanes
  12. Lendering, Antiochus IV Epiphanes.
  13. Britannica, Antiochus IV Epiphanes: In 172, for an even bigger tribute, he appointed Menelaus in place of Jason.
  14. Grabbe 2010, pp. 14–5; Britannica, Antiochus IV Epiphanes
  15. Grabbe 2010, p. 15; Morkholm 2008, p. 283
  16. Schäfer 2003, p. 40; Grabbe 2010, p. 15
  17. Morkholm 2008, p. 283.
  18. Morkholm 2008, p. 284; Grabbe 2010, p. 15
  19. Schwartz 2009, pp. 54–5; Morkholm 2008, p. 286
  20. Schäfer 2003, p. 47; Morkholm 2008, p. 287
  21. Morkholm 2008, pp. 289–90; Schäfer 2003, p. 47
  22. Morkholm 2008, p. 290
  23. Schwartz 2009, p. 33; Morkholm 2008, p. 290; Britannica, Antiochus IV Epiphanes: in December 164 was able to tear down the altar of Zeus and reconsecrate the Temple
  24. Morkholm 2008, p. 290.
  25. Schwartz 2009, p. 33.
  26. Schwartz 2009, p. 33; Bourgel 2019, p. 8
  27. Bourgel 2019, p. 8.
  28. Bourgel 2019, p. 10.
  29. Schwartz 2009, p. 37.
  30. Bourgel 2019, p. 9; Hjelm 2010, p. 28
  31. Schwartz 2009, p. 38; Hjelm 2010, p. 35
  32. Schwartz 2009, p. 38.
  33. Schwartz 2009, p. 42.
  34. Schwartz 2009, p. 45.
  35. Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 50.
  36. Greetham, The Rev. Phil. "King Herod the Great." "The Nativity Pages". Archived from the original on 2012-07-23., 2001.
  37. Richardson 1996, p. 344.
  38. Chancey 2005, p. 74.
  39. Magness 2012, p. 133.
  40. Richardson 1996, p. 303; Magness 2012, p. 133
  41. Menahem MANṠŪR (1964). The Dead Sea Scrolls: A College Textbook and a Study Guide. Brill Archive. p. 14. GGKEY:EP1DFQRSATU.
  42. Sebaste, Holy Land Atlas Travel and Tourism Agency.
  43. "Entry for Herod." The Jewish Virtual Library, American-Jewish Cooperative Enterprise, 2007. Retrieved June 18, 2007.
  44. Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 62.
  45. Richardson 1996, p. 282.
  46. Millar 1993, p. 354.
  47. Temple of Herod, Jewish Encyclopedia
  48. Richardson 1996, p. 265.
  49. Richardson 1996, p. 363.
  50. Rahner (page 731) states that the consensus among historians is c. 4 BCE. Sanders supports c. 4 BCE. Vermes supports c. 6/5 BCE. Finegan supports c. 3/2 BCE. Sanders refers to the general consensus, Vermes a common 'early' date, Finegan defends comprehensively the date according to early Christian traditions.
  51. Schwartz 2009, p. 48.
  52. Haensch 2010, p. 2; Ben-Sasson 1976, p. 246: When Archelaus was deposed from the ethnarchy in 6 CE, Judea proper, Samaria and Idumea were converted into a Roman province under the name Iudaea.; Schwartz 2009, p. 48
  53. Millar 1993, p. 346.
  54. Chancey 2005, p. 86.
  55. Magness 2012, p. 138.
  56. Haensch 2010, p. 2; Millar 1993, p. 356
  57. Haensch 2010, p. 2; Magness 2012, p. 139
  58. Magness 2012, p. 139.
  59. Chancey 2005, p. 78; McLaren & Goodman 2016, p. 215; Schwartz 2009, p. 47
  60. Haensch 2010, p. 2; Chancey 2005, p. 71
  61. Schwartz 2009, p. 52.
  62. Magness 2012, p. 140.
  63. Millar 1993, p. 366.
  64. Schwartz 2016, p. 234.
  65. Chancey 2005, p. 62; Millar 1993, p. 371
  66. Bonne 2014, p. 1.
  67. Chancey 2005, p. 103.
  68. Weksler-Bdolah 2019, p. 53.
  69. Weksler-Bdolah 2019, p. 58.
  70. Chancey 2005, p. 62; Schwartz 2016, p. 238; Weksler-Bdolah 2019, p. 53
  71. Donaldson 2000, p. 127; Viviano 2007, p. 17
  72. Viviano 2007, p. 17.
  73. Slavik 2001, p. 60.
  74. Lewin 2005, p. 39.
  75. Lewin 2005, p. 36; Bijovsky 2007, p. 182
  76. Moser 2018, p. 225.
  77. Lewin 2005, p. 38.
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  81. Donaldson 2000, p. 128; Viviano 2007, p. 17
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  85. Lewin 2005, p. 41; Stewart Evans 2005, p. 26; Sivan 2008, pp. 141–2
  86. Dignas & Winter 2007, p. 117.
  87. Schäfer 2003, p. 198.
  88. Kaegi 1992, p. 93.
  89. Kaegi 1992, p. 146.
  90. Schäfer 2003, p. 198: the capture of Jerusalem in 638; Dignas & Winter 2007, p. 49: The conquerors had already taken Damascus in 635, and in 637 Jerusalem fell.
  91. Avni 2014, p. 325.
  92. Masalha 2018, p. 155.
  93. Olszowy-Schlanger 1998, p. 55; Meri 2006, p. 590
  94. Gil 1997, p. 841.
  95. Barkat, Amiram (August 8, 2003). "The big one is coming". Haaretz. Retrieved May 11, 2011.
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  98. Gil 1997, pp. 297–8, 842.
  99. Gil 1997, p. 279.
  100. Gil 1997, p. 283,842.
  101. Gil 1997, p. 284.
  102. Khadduri 2006, p. 248.
  103. Goitein & Grabar 2007, p. 230.
  104. Khadduri 2006, p. 248; Jotischky 2016, p. 53
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  106. Pringle 1993, p. 10.
  107. Gil 1997, p. 844.
  108. Gil 1997, p. 843.
  109. Burke & Peilstocker 2011, p. 114.
  110. Burke & Peilstocker 2011, p. 114; Goitein & Grabar 2007, p. 231
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  112. Jotischky 2016, p. 54.
  113. Janin 2015, p. 76.
  114. Gil 1997, p. 162.
  115. Gil 1997, p. 848; Pringle 1993, p. 10
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  117. Gil 1997, p. 849.
  118. Pringle 1993, p. 10; Goitein & Grabar 2007, p. 232
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  120. Kennedy 2004, p. 277; Harris 2014, p. 29
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  128. Gil 1997, p. 366.
  129. Gil 1997, p. 369-70.
  130. Janin 2015, p. 77.
  131. Lev 2006, p. 592; Jotischky 2016, p. 50; Janin 2015, p. 77
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  135. Gil 1997, p. 386.
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  138. Harris 2014, p. 29; Preiser-Kapeller 2021, p. 165
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  144. Goitein & Grabar 2007, p. 233.
  145. Janin 2015, p. 83.
  146. Avni 2014, p. 325; Lev 2006, p. 592; Gil 1997, p. 408
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  148. Masalha 2018, p. 186.
  149. Gil 1997, p. 415.
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  151. Lev 2006, p. 592.
  152. Burke & Peilstocker 2011, p. 117.
  153. Gil 1997, p. 414.
  154. Jotischky 2017, p. 56; Asbridge 2004, pp. 298, 309
  155. Barber 2012, p. 358.
  156. Asbridge 2004, p. 304.
  157. Chareyron 2005, p. 79; Pringle 1993, p. 12
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  159. Barber 2012, p. 19.
  160. Hickman 2019.
  161. Britannica, Palestine - The Crusades.
  162. Boas 2001, p. 44.
  163. Lock 2006, p. 53.
  164. Baldwin 1969, p. 538.
  165. Meri 2006, p. 591.
  166. Chareyron 2005, p. 79; Avni 2014, p. 336; Jotischky 2016, p. 49
  167. Asbridge 2010, p. 564.
  168. Britannica, Crusades; Asbridge 2010, p. 564
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  174. Boas 2001, p. 45; Madden 2014, p. 141
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  176. Asbridge 2010, p. 470.
  177. Asbridge 2010, p. 474.
  178. Asbridge 2010, p. 475.
  179. Chareyron 2005, p. 82.
  180. Roth 2014, p. 622.
  181. Farsoun 2004, p. 8.
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  183. Barnai, Jacob. The Jews in Palestine in the Eighteenth Century: under the patronage of the Istanbul Committee of Officials for Palestine (University of Alabama Press 1992) ISBN 978-0-8173-0572-7; p. 14
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  185. Gershom Gerhard Scholem (1976-01-01). Sabbatai Sevi: the Mystical Messiah, 1626–1676. Princeton University Press. p. 368. ISBN 978-0-691-01809-6. In Safed, too, the [Sabbatai] movement gathered strength during the autumn of 1665. The reports about the utter destruction, in 1662 [sic], of the Jewish settlement there seem greatly exaggerated, and the conclusions based on them are false. ... Rosanes' account of the destruction of the Safed community is based on a misunderstanding of his sources; the community declined in numbers but continued to exist ... A very lively account of the Jewish community is given by French trader d'Arvieux who visited Safed in 1660.
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  189. Friedman, Isaiah (1971). German Intervention on Behalf of the "Yishuv", 1917 , Jewish Social Studies, Vol. 33, pp. 23–43.
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  191. Provisional Government of Israel: Official Gazette: Number 1; Tel Aviv, 5 Iyar 5708, 14.5.1948 Page 1: The Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel
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  200. Proclamation 9683 of December 6, 2017, 82 FR 58331

Sources

Ancient history

Hellenistic period

Roman period

Byzantine period

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