Timeline of Solar System astronomy

The following is a timeline of Solar System astronomy and science. It includes the advances in the knowledge of the Earth at planetary scale, as part of it.

Direct observation

Humans (Homo sapiens) have inhabited the Earth in the last 300,000 years at least,[1] and they had witnessed directly observable astronomical and geological phenomena. For millennia, these have arose admiration and curiosity, being admitted as of superhuman nature and scale. Multiple imaginative interpretations were being fixed in oral traditions of difficult dating, and incorporated into a variety of belief systems, as animism, shamanism, mythology, religion and/or philosophy.

Although such phenomena are not "discoveries" per se, as they are part of the common human experience, their observation shape the knowledge and comprehension of the world around us, and about its position in the observable universe, in which the Sun plays a role of outmost importance for us. What today is known to be the Solar System was regarded for generations as the contents of the "whole universe".

The most relevant phenomena of these kind are:

Along with an indeterminate number of unregistered sightings of rare events: meteor impacts; novae and supernovae.

Antiquity

The Antikythera mechanism (Fragment A – front); visible is the largest gear in the mechanism, approximately 140 millimetres (5.5 in) in diameter
The Antikythera mechanism (Fragment A – back)
  • 2nd millennium BCE – Earliest possible date for the composition of the Babylonian Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa, a 7th-century BC copy[2] of a list of observations of the motions of the planet Venus, and the oldest planetary table currently known.
  • 2nd millennium BCE Babylonian astronomers identify the inner planets Mercury and Venus and the outer planets Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, which would remain the only known planets until the invention of the telescope in early modern times.[3]
  • Late 2nd millennium BCE Chinese astronomers record a solar eclipse during the reign of Zhong Kang, described as part of the document Punitive Expedition of Yin in the Book of Documents.[4]
  • Late 2nd millennium BCE – Chinese established their timing cycle of 12 Earthly Branches based on the approximate number of years (11.86) it takes Jupiter to complete a single revolution in the sky.
  • c. 1200 BCE – Earliest Babylonian star catalogues.[5]
  • c. 1100 BCE – Chinese first determine the spring equinox.
  • c. 750 BCE – During the reign of Nabonassar (747–733 BC), the systematic records of ominous phenomena in Babylonian astronomical diaries that began at this time allowed for the discovery of a repeating 18-year cycle of lunar eclipses.[6]
  • 776 BCE – Chinese make the earliest reliable record of a solar eclipse.[7]
  • 7th century BCE Egyptian astronomers alleged to have predicted a solar eclipse.
  • 613 BCE – A comet, possibly Comet Halley, is recorded in Spring and Autumn Annals by the Chinese.[8]
  • 586 BCE Thales of Miletus alleged to have predicted a solar eclipse.[9]
  • c. 560 BCE Anaximander is arguably the first to conceive a mechanical model of the world, although highly inaccurate: a cylindrical Earth[10] floats freely in space surrounded by three concentric wheels turning at different distances: the closest for the stars and planets, the second for the Moon and the farthest for the Sun, all conceived not as bodies but as "fire seen thru holes" in every wheel.[11] But he starts to feed the idea of celestial mechanics as different of the notion of planets being heavenly deities, leaving mythology aside.
  • c. 475 BCE Parmenides is credited to be the first Greek who declared that the Earth is spherical and is situated in the centre of the universe, believed to have been the first to detect the identity of Hesperus, the evening-star, and Phosphorus, the morning-star (Venus),[12] and by some, the first to claim that moonlight is a reflection of sunlight.[13]
  • c. 450 BCE Anaxagoras shows that the Moon shines by reflected sunlight: the phases of the Moon are caused by the illumination of its sphere by the Sun in different angles along the lunar month. He was also the first to give a correct explanation of eclipses, by asserting that the Moon is rocky, thus opaque, and closer to the Earth than the Sun.[14]
  • c. 400 BCE Philolaus and other Pythagoreans propose a model in which the Earth and the Sun revolve around an invisible "Central Fire" (not the Sun), and the Moon and the planets orbit the Earth.[15] Due to philosophical concerns about the number 10, they also added a tenth "hidden body" or Counter-Earth (Antichthon), always in the opposite side of the invisible Central Fire and therefore also invisible from Earth.[16]
  • c. 360 BCE Plato claims in his Timaeus that circles and spheres are the preferred shape of the universe and that the Earth is at the centre. These circles are the orbits of the heavenly bodies, varying in size for every of them. He arranged these celestial orbs, in increasing order from the Earth: Moon, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the fixed stars located on the celestial sphere forming the outermost shell.[17]
  • c. 360 BCE Eudoxus of Cnidus proposes for first time a purely geometric-mathematical, geocentric model of the planetary movements, including that of the Sun and the Moon.[18]
  • c. 350 BCE Aristotle argues for a spherical Earth using lunar eclipses[19] and other observations. Also, he asserts his conception of the heavenly spheres,[20] and of an outer space fulfilled with aether.[21]
  • c. 330 BCE Heraclides Ponticus is said to be the first Greek who proposes that the Earth rotates on its axis, from west to east, once every 24 hours, contradicting Aristotle's teachings. Simplicius says that Heraclides proposed that the irregular movements of the planets can be explained if the Earth moves while the Sun stays still,[22] but these statements are disputed.[23]
  • c. 280 BCE Aristarchus of Samos offers the first definite discussion of the possibility of a heliocentric cosmos,[24] and uses the size of the Earth's shadow on the Moon to estimate the Moon's orbital radius at 60 Earth radii, and its physical radius as one-third that of the Earth. He also makes an inaccurate attempt to measure the distance to the Sun.[25]
  • c. 250 BCE – Following the heliocentric ideas of Aristarcus, Archimedes in his work The Sand Reckoner computes the diameter of the universe centered around the Sun to be about 1014 stadia (in modern units, about 2 light years, 18.93×1012 km, 11.76×1012 mi).[26]
  • c. 210 BCE Apollonius of Perga shows the equivalence of two descriptions of the apparent retrograde planet motions (assuming the geocentric model), one using eccentrics and another deferent and epicycles.[27]
  • c. 200 BCE Eratosthenes determines that the radius of the Earth is roughly 6,400 km (4,000 mi).[28]
  • c. 150 BCE – According to Strabo (1.1.9), Seleucus of Seleucia is the first to state that the tides are due to the attraction of the Moon, and that the height of the tides depends on the Moon's position relative to the Sun.[29]
  • c. 150 BCE Hipparchus uses parallax to determine that the distance to the Moon is roughly 380,000 km (236,100 mi).[30]
  • c. 134 BCE – Hipparchus discovers the precession of the equinoxes.[31]
  • c. 87 BCE – The Antikythera mechanism, the earliest known computer, is built. It is an extremely complex astronomical computer designed to predict solar and lunar eclipses accurately and track the movements of the planets and the Sun. It could also calculate the differences in the apsidial and axial precession of heavenly bodies with extreme degree of accuracy.[32]
  • 28 BCE – Chinese history book Book of Han makes earliest known dated record of sunspot.[33]
  • c. 150 CE Claudius Ptolemy completes his work Almagest, that codifies the astronomical knowledge of his time and cements the geocentric model in the West, and it remained the most authoritative text on astronomy for more than 1,500 years. The Almagest put forward extremely complex and accurate methods to determine the position and structure of planets, stars (including some objects as nebulae, supernovas and galaxies then regarded as stars also) and heavenly bodies. It includes a catalogue of 1,022 stars (largely based on a previous one by Hipparchus of about 850 entries) and a large amount of constellations, comets and other astronomical phenomena.[34] Following a long astrological tradition, he arranged the heavenly spheres ordering them (from Earth outward): Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn and fixed stars.

Middle Ages

  • c. 420 Martianus Capella describes a modified geocentric model, in which the Earth is at rest in the center of the universe and circled by the Moon, the Sun, three planets and the stars, while Mercury and Venus circle the Sun.[35]
  • c. 500 – Indian mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata accurately computes the solar and lunar eclipses, and the length of Earth's revolution around the Sun.
  • c. 500 – Aryabhata discovers the oblique motion of the apsidial precession of the Sun and notes that it is changing with respect to the motion of stars and Earth. He also puts forward a theory of cosmic pluralism and multiverse theory in which there are thousands of universes apart from own and each one has its own unique laws of physics.
  • c. 500 – Aryabhata discovers the rotation of the Earth by conducting experiments and giving empirical examples for his theories. He also explains the cause of day and night through the diurnal rotation of the Earth. He also developed highly accurate models for the orbital motion of the Moon, Mercury and Mars. He also developed an early version of the geoheliocentric model of the universe.[36][37][38]
  • c. 620 – Indian mathematician-astronomer Brahmagupta hypothesizes that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres are subject to the same laws of physics as Earth, and proposes that there is a force of attraction (the gravity) between heavenly bodies.
  • 628 – Brahmagupta gives methods for calculations of the motions and places of various planets, their rising and setting, conjunctions, and calculations of the solar and lunar eclipses.[39][40]
  • 687 – Chinese make earliest known record of meteor shower.
  • 820 Persian astronomer, Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, composes his Zij astronomical tables, utilising Arabic numerals and the Hindu–Arabic numeral system in his calculations.[41] He also translates Aryabhata's astronomical and mathematical treatises into Arabic.[42]
  • 850 Al-Farghani (Alfraganus) translated and wrote commentary on Ptolemy's Almagest and gave values for the motion of the ecliptic, and the precessional movement of the heavenly bodies based on the values given by Ptolemy and Hipparchus.[43]
  • 1019 Al-Biruni observes and describes the lunar eclipse on September 17 in detail and gives the exact latitudes of the stars during it.[44]
    An annotated diagram explaining the phases of the moon from one of al-Biruni's astronomical works. Sun (far right) – Earth (far left) and Lunar phases
  • c. 1030 – In his major astronomical work, the Mas'ud Canon, Al-Biruni observed that, contrary to Ptolemy, the Sun's apogee (highest point in the heavens) was mobile, not fixed.[45]
  • 1031 – Chinese astronomer and scientist Shen Kuo calculates the distance between the Earth and the Sun in his mathematical treatises.[46]
  • 1054 Chinese astronomers record the sighting of the Crab Nebula as a "guest star", and they record several other supernovae during the 10th and 11th centuries.[47]
  • c. 1060 Andalusi astronomer Al-Zarqali corrects geographical data from Ptolemy and Al-Khwarizmi, specifically by correcting Ptolemy's estimate of the longitude of the Mediterranean Sea from 62 degrees to the correct value of 42 degrees.[48] He was the first to demonstrate the motion of the solar apogee relative to the fixed background of the stars, measuring its rate of motion as 12.9 seconds per year, which is remarkably close to the modern calculation of 11.77 seconds.[49] Al-Zarqālī also contributed to the famous Tables of Toledo.
  • c. 1175 Gerard of Cremona translates Ptolemy's Almagest from Arabic into Latin.[50]
  • 1180s (decade) Robert Grosseteste described the birth of the Universe in an explosion and the crystallisation of matter. He also put forward several new ideas such as rotation of the Earth around its axis and the cause of day and night. His treatise De Luce is the first attempt to describe the heavens and Earth using a single set of physical laws.[51]
  • c. 1200 Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, in dealing with his conception of physics and the physical world, rejected the Aristotelian and Avicennian view of a single world, but instead proposed that there are "a thousand thousand worlds (alfa alfi 'awalim) beyond this world such that each one of those worlds be bigger and more massive than this world as well as having the like of what this world has."[52]
Alfonsine Tables
  • 1252 Alfonso X of Castile sponsored the creation and compilation of the Alfonsine Tables by scholars he assemble in the Toledo School of Translators in Toledo, Spain.[53] These astronomical tables were used and updated during the following three centuries, as the main source of astronomical data, mainly to calculate ephemerides (which were in turn used by astrologers to cast horoscopes).[54]
  • c. 1300 Jewish astronomer Levi ben Gershon (Gersonides) recognized that the stars are much larger than the planets. Gersonides appears to be among the few astronomers before modern times, along Aristarcus, to have surmized that the fixed stars are much further away than the planets. While all other astronomers put the fixed stars on a rotating sphere just beyond the outer planets, Gersonides estimated the distance to the fixed stars to be no less than 159,651,513,380,944 Earth radii, or about 100,000 light-years in modern units.[55][56]
  • c. 1350 Ibn al-Shatir anticipates Copernicus by abandoning the equant of Ptolemy in his calculations of planetary motion,[57] and he provides a proto empirical model of lunar motion which accurately matches observations.[58]
  • c. 1350 Nicole Oresme put forward several revolutionary theories like mean speed theorem, which he used in calculating the position and shape of the planetary orbits, measuring the apsidial and axial precession of the lunar and solar orbits, measuring the angles and distance between ecliptics and calculating stellar and planetary distances. In his Livre du Ciel et du Monde, Oresme discussed a range of evidence for the daily rotation of the Earth on its axis.[59][60]
  • 1440 Nicholas of Cusa proposes that the Earth rotates on its axis in his book, On Learned Ignorance.[61] Like Oresme, he also wrote about the possibility of the plurality of worlds.[62]

16th century

  • 1501 – Indian astronomer Nilakantha Somayaji proposes a universe in which the planets orbit the Sun, but the Sun orbits the Earth.[63]
  • c. 1514 Nicolaus Copernicus states his heliocentric theory in Commentariolus.[64][65][66]
  • 1522 – First circumnavigation of the world by Magellan-Elcano expedition shows that the Earth is, in effect, a sphere.[67]
  • 1543 – Copernicus publishes his heliocentric theory in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium.[68]
  • 1576 Tycho Brahe founds the first modern astronomical observatory in modern Europe, Uraniborg.[69]
    Engraving of the mural quadrant from Brahe's book Astronomiae instauratae mechanica (1598)
  • 1577 – Tycho Brahe records the position of the Great Comet of that year as viewed from Uraniborg (in the island Hven, near Copenhagen) and compares it with that observed by Thadaeus Hagecius from Prague at the same time, giving deliberate consideration to the movement of the Moon. It was discovered that, while the comet was in approximately the same place for both of them, the Moon was not, and this meant that the comet was much further out, contrary to what was previously conceived as an atmospheric phenomenon.[70]
  • 1582 – Pope Gregory XIII introduces the Gregorian calendar, an enhanced solar calendar more accurate than the previous Roman Julian calendar.[71] The principal change was to space leap years differently so as to make the average calendar year 365.2425 days long, more closely approximating the 365.2422-day 'tropical' or 'solar' year that is determined by the Earth's revolution around the Sun. The reform advanced the date by 10 days: Thursday 4 October 1582 was followed by Friday 15 October 1582. The Gregoran calendar is still in use today.
  • 1584 Giordano Bruno published two important philosophical dialogues (La Cena de le Ceneri and De l'infinito universo et mondi) in which he argued against the planetary spheres and affirmed the Copernican principle. Bruno's infinite universe was filled with a substance—a "pure air", aether, or spiritus—that offered no resistance to the heavenly bodies which, in Bruno's view, rather than being fixed, moved under their own impetus (momentum). Most dramatically, he completely abandoned the idea of a hierarchical universe. Bruno's cosmology distinguishes between "suns" which produce their own light and heat, and have other bodies moving around them; and "earths" which move around suns and receive light and heat from them. Bruno suggested that some, if not all, of the objects classically known as fixed stars are in fact suns,[72] so he was arguably the first person to grasp that "stars are other suns with their own planets." Bruno wrote that other worlds "have no less virtue nor a nature different from that of our Earth" and, like Earth, "contain animals and inhabitants".[73]
  • 1588 – Tycho Brahe publishes his own Tychonic system, a blend between Ptolemy's classical geocentric model and Copernicus' heliocentric model, in which the Sun and the Moon revolve around the Earth, in the center of universe, and all other planets revolve around the Sun.[74]

17th century

18th century

Halley's map of the path of the Solar eclipse of 3 May 1715 across England

19th century

The earliest surviving dagerrotype of the Moon by Draper (1840)
Percival Lowell in 1914, observing Venus in the daytime with the 24-inch (61 cm) Alvan Clark & Sons refracting telescope at Flagstaff, Arizona

1900–1957

Palomar Mountain Observatory featured on 1948 United States stamp
The first photo from space was taken from a V-2 launched by US scientists on 24 October 1946.

1958–1976

Earth taken from Lunar Orbiter 1 in 1966. Image as originally shown to the public displays extensive flaws and striping.
Artist's impression of Pioneer 10's flyby of Jupiter
  • 1958 – Under supervision of James Van Allen, Explorer 1 and Explorer 3 confirmed the existence of the Earth's magnetosphere radiation belts, named after him.[175]
  • 1959 Explorer 6 sends the first image of the entire Earth from space.[176]
  • 1959 Luna 3 sends the first images of another celestial body, the Moon, from space, including its unseen far side.[177]
  • 1962 Mariner 2 Venus flyby performs the first closeup observations of another planet.[178]
  • 1964 Mariner 4 spacecraft provides the first detailed images of the surface of Mars.[179]
  • 1966 Luna 9 Moon lander provides the first images from the surface of another celestial body.[180]
  • 1967 Venera 4 provides the first information on Venus's dense atmosphere.[181]
  • 1968 Apollo 8 becomes the first crewed lunar mission, providing historic images of the whole Earth.[182]
  • 1969 Apollo 11 mission landed on the Moon, first humans walking upon it.[183] They return the first lunar samples back to Earth.[184]
  • 1970 Venera 7 Venus lander sends back the first information successfully obtained from the surface of another planet.[185]
  • 1971 Mariner 9 Mars spacecraft becomes the first to successfully orbit another planet.[186] It provides the first detailed maps of the Martian surface,[187] discovering much of the planet's topography, including the volcano Olympus Mons and the canyon system Valles Marineris, which is named in its honor.
  • 1971 Mars 3 lands on Mars, and transmits the first partial image from the surface of another planet.[188]
  • 1973 Skylab astronauts discover the Sun's coronal holes.[189]
  • 1973 Pioneer 10 flies by Jupiter, providing the first closeup images of the planet and revealing its intense radiation belts.[190]
  • 1973 Mariner 10 provides the first closeup images of the clouds of Venus.[180]
  • 1974 Mariner 10 provides the first closeup images of the surface of Mercury.[180]
  • 1975 Venera 9 becomes the first probe to successfully transmit images from the surface of Venus.[191]
  • 1976 Viking 1 and 2 become the first probes to send images (in color) from the surface of Mars, as well as to perform in situ biological experiments with the Martian soil.[192]

1977–2000

Artist's impression of Giotto spacecraft approaching Halley's Comet
A map of Venus produced from Magellan data

2001–present

Annular eclipse of the Sun by Phobos as viewed by the Mars Curiosity rover (20 August 2013).
  • 2005 Hayabusa spacecraft lands on asteroid Itokawa and collect samples. It returned the samples to Earth in 2010.[233]
  • 2006 – The 26th General Assembly of the IAU voted in favor of a revised definition of a planet[234] and officially declared Ceres, Pluto, and Eris dwarf planets.[235][236]
  • 2007 – Dwarf planet Gonggong, a large KBO, was discovered by Megan Schwamb, M. Brown, and D. Rabinowitz.[237]
  • 2008 – The IAU declares Makemake and Haumea dwarf planets.[238][239]
  • 2011 Dawn spacecraft enters orbit around the large asteroid Vesta making detailed measurements.[240]
  • 2012 – Saturn's moon Methone is imaged up close by the Cassini spacecraft, revealing a remarkably smooth surface.[241]
  • 2012 Dawn spacecraft breaks orbit of Vesta and heads for Ceres.[240]
  • 2013 MESSENGER spacecraft provides the first ever complete map of the surface of Mercury.[242]
  • 2013 – A team led by Felipe Braga Ribas discover a ring system around the minor planet and centaur Chariklo, the first of this kind ever detected.[243]
  • 2014 Rosetta spacecraft becomes the first comet orbiter (around 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko),[244] and deploys on it the first comet lander Philae that collected close-up data from the comet's surface.[245]
  • 2015 Dawn spacecraft enters orbit around the dwarf planet Ceres making detailed measurements.[246]
  • 2015 New Horizons spacecraft flies by Pluto, providing the first ever sharp images of its surface, and its largest moon Charon.[247]
  • 2017 'Oumuamua, the first known interstellar object crossing the Solar System, is identified.[248]
  • 2019 – Closest approach of New Horizons to Arrokoth, a KBO farther than Pluto.[249]
  • 2019 2I/Borisov, the first interstellar comet and second interstellar object, is discovered.[250]
  • 2022 – The Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) spacecraft mission intentionally crashed into Dimorphos, the minor-planet moon of the asteroid Didymos, deviating (slightly) the orbit of a Solar System body for the first time ever.[251] While DART hosted no scientific payload, its camera took closeup photos of the two objects, and a secondary spacecraft, the LICIACube, also gathered related scientific data.[252]

See also

The number of currently known, or observed, objects of the Solar System are in the hundreds of thousands. Many of them are listed in the following articles:

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