Mande languages
The Mande languages (Mandén, Manding; ) are a group of languages spoken in several countries in West Africa by the Mandé peoples. These include; Maninka, Mandinka, Soninke, Bambara, Kpelle, Jula, Bozo, Mende, Susu, and Vai. There are around 60 to 75 languages spoken by 30 to 40 million people,[1] chiefly in; Burkina Faso, Mali, Senegal, the Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Mauritania, Ghana and also in northwestern Nigeria and northern Benin.
| Mande | |
|---|---|
| Western Sudanic | |
| Ethnicity | Mandé peoples |
| Geographic distribution | West Africa |
| Linguistic classification | Niger–Congo?
|
| Proto-language | Proto-Mande |
| Subdivisions |
|
| ISO 639-5 | dmn |
| Linguasphere | 00- (phylozone) |
| Glottolog | mand1469 |
 | |
The Mande languages show a few lexical similarities with the Atlantic–Congo language family, so together they have been proposed as parts of a larger Niger–Congo language family since the 1950s. However, the Mande languages lack the noun-class morphology that is the primary identifying feature of the Atlantic–Congo languages. Accordingly, linguists increasingly treat Mande and Atlantic–Congo as independent language families.[2][3]
History
Various opinions exist as to the age of the Mande languages. Joseph Greenberg suggested that the Niger-Congo group, which in his view includes the Mande language family, began to break up at around 7000 years BP. Its speakers would have practised a Neolithic culture, as indicated by the Proto-Niger-Congo words for "cow", "goat" and "cultivate".[4]
Valentin Vydrin concluded that "the Mande homeland at the second half of the 4th millennium BC was located in Southern Sahara, somewhere to the North of 16° or even 18° of Northern latitude and between 3° and 12° of Western longitude.".[5] That is now Mauritania and southern Western Sahara.
Early Scholarship
The group was first recognized in 1854 by Sigismund Wilhelm Koelle, in his Polyglotta Africana. He mentioned 13 languages under the heading North-Western High-Sudan Family, or Mandéga Family of Languages. In 1901, Maurice Delafosse made a distinction of two groups.[6] He speaks of a northern group mandé-tan and a southern group mandé-fu. The distinction was basically done only because the languages in the north use the expression tan for ten, and the southern languages use fu. In 1924, Louis Tauxier noted that the distinction is not well founded and there is at least a third subgroup he called mandé-bu. It was not until 1950 that André Prost supported that view and gave further details.
In 1958, Welmers published an article called "The Mande Languages," where he divided the languages into three subgroups: North-West, South and East. His conclusion was based on lexicostatistic research. Joseph Greenberg followed that distinction in his The Languages of Africa (1963). Long (1971) and Gérard Galtier (1980) follow the distinction into three groups but with notable differences.
Classification
Relation to Niger-Congo
Mande does not share the morphology characteristic of most of the Niger–Congo family, such as the noun-class system. Blench regards it as an early branch that, like Ijoid and perhaps Dogon, diverged before this morphology developed. Dwyer (1998) compared it with other branches of Niger–Congo and finds that they form a coherent family, with Mande being the most divergent of the branches he considered.
However, Dimmendaal (2008) argues that the evidence for inclusion is slim, and that for now Mande is best considered an independent family.[2][7] The same view is held by Güldemann (2018).[3]
Without definitively concluding that Mande is or is not a member of Niger–Congo, Vydrin (2016) notes that proto-Mande basic vocabulary fits relatively well with Niger–Congo, and that typological criteria such as the absence of a noun-class system should not be taken as probative; he notes that "If the position of Mande within Niger-Congo is confirmed... Mande will certainly represent the most ancient branching of the phylum".[8]
Internal classification
The diversity and depth of the Mande family is comparable to that of Indo-European. Eleven low-level branches of Mande are nearly universally accepted: Southern Mande (Dan etc.), Eastern Mande (Bisa, Boko etc.), Samogo, Bobo, Soninke–Bozo, Southwestern Mande (Mende, Kpelle, Loma etc.), Soso–Jalonke, Jogo, Vai–Kono, Mokole and Manding (Bambara, Djula etc.). It is also widely accepted that these form two primary branches, the first two as Southeastern Mande and the rest as Western Mande.[1]
Most internal Mande classifications are based on lexicostatistics. See, for example, based on the Swadesh list).[9] An alternative classification from Kastenholz (1996) is based on lexical innovations and comparative linguistics. Note however that Kastenholz warns that this is not based on objective criteria and thus is not a genealogical classification in the narrow sense.[10] The following classification is a compilation of both.
| Mande |
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Vydrin (2009) differs somewhat from this: he places Soso-Jalonke with Southwestern (a return to André Prost 1953); Soninke-Bozo, Samogho and Bobo as independent branches of Western Mande, and Mokole with Vai-Kono. Most classifications place Jo within Samogo.
Morphosyntactic features
Mande languages do not have the noun-class system or verbal extensions of the Atlantic–Congo languages and for which the Bantu languages are so famous, but Bobo has causative and intransitive forms of the verb. Southwestern Mande languages and Soninke have initial consonant mutation. Plurality is most often marked with a clitic; in some languages, with tone, as for example in Sembla. Pronouns often have alienable–inalienable and inclusive–exclusive distinctions. Word order in transitive clauses is subject–auxiliary–object–verb–adverb. Mainly postpositions are used. Within noun phrases, possessives come before the noun, and adjectives and plural markers after the verb; demonstratives are found with both orders.[11]
Comparative vocabulary
Below is a sample basic vocabulary of reconstructed proto-forms:
| Language | eye | ear | nose | tooth | tongue | mouth | blood | bone | tree | water | eat | name |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Proto-Mande[12] | *ɲíŋ | *lɛɓ̰́ Ṽ | *yíti | |||||||||
| Proto-West Mande[13] | *túli | *sʸúN | *ɲíN | **nɛ̌N | *dá ~ ɗá | *jío ~ yío | *gúri ~ wúri | *jío ~ yío | *tɔ́ko | |||
| Proto-Manding (Mandekan)[14] | *nya | *tulo | *nun | *nyin | *nɛn(e) | *da | *joli | *kolo | *yiri | *ji | *domo(n) | *tɔgɔ |
| Proto-East Mande (Niger-Volta)[15] | *jɛN (< *gɛN) | *toro | *N-jẽ | *soN(-ka) | *N-lɛ | *lɛ | *(N-)wa(-ru) | *(N-)gero | *li/*da | *jiN | *be(-le) | *tɔ |
| Proto-South Mande[16] | *yũ̀ã́ | *tɔ́lɔ́ŋ | *yṹã̄ | *sɔ̃̀ɛ̃́ | *nã̄nɛ̃́ | *ɗé | *yɔ̃̀mũ̄ | *wɔ̃́nɛ̃́ | *yílí | *yí | *ɓɪ̀lɪ̀ | *tɔ́ |
Below are some cognates from D. J. Dwyer (1988) (⟨j⟩ is [dʲ] or [d͡ʒ]):[17]
| GLOSS | PROTO- MANDÉ | Manding | Kono-Vai | Susu | Mandé (SW) | Soninké | Sembla | Bobo | San | Busa | Mano | Dan | Guro | Mwa |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'mouth' | *da | da | da | dɛ | la | laqqe | jo | do | le | le | le | Di | le | le, di |
| 'saliva' | *da-yi | da-ji | da- | sɛ-ye | la-yi | laxan-ji | jon-fago | dibe | se | le-i | le-yi | Di-li | leri | liri |
| 'water' | *yi | je | yi | yi | ya | ji | jo | ji, zio | mun | i | yi | yi | yi | yi |
| 'breast' | *n-koŋ | sin | susu | sisi | ŋeni | konbe | kye | ɲiŋi | ɲo | ɲo | ɲoŋ | ɲoŋ | ɲoŋ | ɲoŋ |
| 'milk' | *n-kon-yi | nɔnɔ | susu-ji | xin-yɛ | gen-iya | -xatti | kye-n-dyo | n-yan-niŋi | n-yo- | n-yoŋ-yi | n-yoŋ-yi | |||
| 'goat' | *bo(re) | ba | ba | ɓoli | sugo | bi | gwa | bwe | ble | bɔ | bɔ | bori | bɔ | |
| 'buck' | *bore-guren | ba-koro | diggeh | gu-gura | ble-sa | bɔ-gon | bɔ-gon | gyagya | bɔ-guren | |||||
| 'sheep' | *saga | saga | bara-wa | yexe | ɓara | jaxe | sega | sɛge | sere | sa | baa | bla | bera | bla |
| 'ram' | *saga-guren | saga-koro | jaxampade | kekyere | si-gula | da-gu | bla-gon | bra-gon | bla-gure | |||||
| 'head' | * | Koun-kolo | yin-kola |
Note that in these cognates:
- 'saliva' = 'mouth'+'water'
- 'milk' = 'breast'+'water'
- 'buck (he-goat)' = 'goat'+'male'
- 'ram' = 'sheep'+'male'
Numerals
Comparison of numerals in individual languages:[18]
| Classification | Language | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bissa | Bissa (Bisa) | díí | píjà | kakʊ́ | sɪ̀ | sɔ́ɔ̀ | sòàtɪ (5 + 1) | sáápra (5 + 2) | síɲe (2 x 4) ? | nɛfʊ̀ (10 -1) ? | bʊ̀ |
| Busa | Boko | do | pla | ʔààɔ̃ | sííɔ̃ | sɔ́o | soolo (5 + 1) | sopla (5 + 2) | swaàɔ̃ (5 + 3) | kɛ̃̀okwi [ litː tear away 1 (from) 10 ] | kwi |
| Busa | Bokobaru (Zogbẽ) | do | pláa | ʔààɡɔ̃ | sííɡɔ̃ | sɔ́ɔ́ro | swɛ́ɛ̀do (5 + 1) | swɛ́ɛ̀pláa (5 + 2) | sɔ́rààɡɔ̃ (5 + 3) | kɛ̃́ndo (10–1) | kurì |
| Busa | Illo Busa | do | pia | ʔààkɔ̃ | ʃííkɔ̃ | sɔ́o | sóodo (5 + 1) | soopia (5 + 2) | swààkɔ̃ (5 + 3) | kĩ́ṇdokwi [litː tear away 1 (from) 10] | kwi |
| Busa | Busa | do | pla | ʔààkɔ̃ | sííkɔ̃ | sɔ́ɔ́ro | súddo (5 + 1) | súppla (5 + 2) | sɔ́rààkɔ̃ (5 + 3) | kɛ̃́ndo (10–1) | kurì |
| Kyanga | Kyanga (Kyenga) (1) | dúú | fʸáā | ˀāàː | ʃíí | sɔ́ɔ́rū | sɔ̄ɔ̄dū (5 + 1) | sʷāhʸáā (5 + 2) | sōōwà (5 + 3) | sòòʃí (5 + 4) | kōōrì |
| Kyanga | Kyanga (Kyenga) (2) | dūː | fʲâː | ʔàː | ʃíː | sɔ̂ːwû | sɔ̂ːdū (5 + 1) | sɔ̂ːfʲá (5 + 2) | sōːuwà (5 + 3) | sōwēʃíː (5 + 4) | kōːlì |
| Kyanga | Kyenga (3) | do | hia / fia | ʔà | ʃí | sɔɔlu | sɔɔdu (5 + 1) | sɔɔhia (5 + 2) | soowà (5 + 3) | sooʃí (5 + 4) | korì |
| Kyanga | Shanga | do | ʍa | ʔà | ʃí | sɔ́ɔ | sɔbodo (5 + 1) | sɔhia (5 + 2) | sɔboʔà (5 + 3) | sɔdoʃí (5 + 4) | wókòì |
| Samo | Matya Samo | ɡɔ̀rɔ́ | prá | tjɔwɔ | sí | sɔ́rɔ́ | sɛ̀rɛ́ (5 + 1) | tjʊ́sʊ́ (5 + 2) | tjisí (2 x 4) | ménaŋɡɔrɔ (10–1) | flè / fʊ̀ |
| Samo | Maya Samo | dɛ́nɛ́ | fúrá | kàakú | síirí | sɔ́ɔrɔ́ | sɔ̀rɔ̀ (5 + 1) | sɔ̀frá (5 + 2) | cíɡísí (2 x 4 ) ? | sóosí (5 + 4) ? | bù |
| Guro-Tura | Guro | dʊ | fíé | yaá | zĩ̀ɛ̃́ | sólú | sʊɛdʊ / sʊɛlʊ (5 + 1) | sʊlàyíé (5 + 2) | sʊlaá (5 + 3) | sʊlàzĩ̀ɛ̃́ (5 + 4) | vu |
| Guro-Tura | Yaouré | tʊ̀ | fli̋ | yaaɡa | sĩjɛ̃ = sĩɟɛ̃ or sĩd͡ʒɛ̃ | sóolu | ʃɛ́dʊ (5 + 1) | sɔ́ravli (5 + 2) | sɔ́ra (5 + 3) | sɔ́rasiɛ̃ (5 + 4) | fù |
| Guro-Tura | Mann (Mano) | doó | pèèlɛ | yààka | yììsɛ | sɔ́ɔ́li | sáláádo (5 + 1) | sálápèèlɛ (5 + 2) | sálàka (5 + 3) | sɛ́lɛ̀ìsɛ (5 + 4) | vũ̀ |
| Nwa-Ben | Beng | do | plaŋ | ŋaŋ | siéŋ | sɔ́ŋ | sɔ́do (5 + 1) | sɔ́pla (5 + 2) | sɔ́wa (5 + 3) | sisi (5 + 4) | ebu |
| Nwa-Ben | Gagu | dò | fɪ́n | yía | zié | súu | sɛ́dò (5 + 1) | sɛ́fɪ́n (5 + 2) | sɛà (5 + 3) | tízie (5 + 4) | vù |
| Nwa-Ben | Mwan (Muan) | do | plɛ | yaɡa | yiziɛ | sóó | srɔádo (5 + 1) | srɔáplɛ (5 + 2) | srɔ́a (5 + 3) | srɔáyiziɛ (5 + 4) | vu |
| Nwa-Ben | Wan | do | pilɔŋ | ʔã́ | sijá | sɔ̀lú | wáŋ́ | séaʔã́ (5 + 2) | séjãŋ́ (5 + 3) | sɔlásijá (5 + 4) | sɔ́jɔlú |
| Jogo-Jeri | Jalkunan | dúlì | fìlɑ̀ | siɡ͡bù | nɑ̄ːnī | sōːlō | mìːlù | mɑ̀ɑ́lɑ̀ | mɑ̀sīɡ͡bū (5 + 3) | mɑ́nɑ̄nì (5 + 4) | tɑ̄ |
| Jogo-Jeri | Ligbi | díén / díyé | fàlà / fàlá | sèɡ͡bá / siɡ͡bá | náánè / náani | sóólò / sóolo | mɔ̀ɔ̀dó / mooró (5 + 1) | màúlà / mafála (5 + 2) | másèɡ͡bá / masiɡ͡bá (5 + 3) | màdááné / maráni (5 + 4) | táàn / táa |
| Manding | Marka (Dafing) | kyen / kyeren | fila / fila | saba / saba | nɛi / naani | luu / luuru | wɔɔ / wɔɔrɔ | wəna / wonla | sii / siɡi | konon / kondon | tan / tan |
| Manding | Bambara | kélen [kélẽ́] | fìla [fìlá] | sàba [sàbá] | náani [náːní] | dúuru [dúːrú] | wɔ́ɔrɔ [wɔ́ːrɔ́] | wólonwula [wólṍwulá] | sèɡin [sèɡĩ́] | kɔ̀nɔntɔn [kɔ̀nɔ̃̀tɔ̃́] | tán [tã́] |
| Manding | Jula (1) | kelen [ké.lẽ́] | filà [fì.là] ~ [flà] | sàbà [sà.bà] | nàànìn [nàːnĩ̀] | dùùrù [dù.ɾù] | wɔ̀ɔ̀rɔ̀ [wɔ̀ːɾɔ́] | wolon fìlà [wò.lṍ.fi.̀là] | sieɡi [sí.é.ɡí] | kɔ̀nɔ̀ndon [kɔ.̀nɔ̃.ⁿdṍ] | tan [tã́] |
| Manding | Jula (2) | kelen [kélẽ́] | fila [fìlá] / fla [flá] | saba [sàbá] | naani [náːní] | looru [lóːrú] | wɔɔrɔ [wɔ́ːrɔ́] | wolonfila [wólṍfìlá] / wolonfla | seɡin [sèɡĩ́] / seeɡi [sèːɡí] | kɔnɔntɔn [kɔ̀nɔ̃̀tɔ̃́] | tan [tã́] |
| Manding | Sankaran Maninka | kɛlɛn | fila | sawa | naani | loolu / looli | wɔɔrɔn | wɔɔrɔn (fi)la | sen | konondo | tan |
| Manding | Mahou | kéléŋ | fyàà | sàwà | náání | lóó | wɔ́ɔ́lɔ́ | wóóŋvyàà | sɛ́ɲíŋ | kɔ̀ɔ̀nŋdɔ́ŋ | táŋ |
| Manding | Mandinka | kíliŋ | fula | saba | náani | lúulu | wóoro | wórówula | sáyi | konónto | táŋ |
| Manding | Xaasonga | kilin | fula | saba | naani | luulu | wooro | woorowula | saɡi | xononto | tan |
| Mokole | Kakabe | kélen | fìla | sàba | náani | lɔ́ɔlu | wɔ́ɔrɔ | wɔ́rɔwila (6 + 1) | sáɡin | kɔ̀nɔntɔ | tán |
| Mokole | Kuranko | kelen | fila | sawa / saba | nani | loli | wɔrɔ | wɔrɔnfila (6 + 1) ? | seɡin | kɔnɔnt | tan |
| Mokole | Lele | kelɛŋ | fela | sawa | nani | luuli | wɔɔrɔ | wɔrɔŋ kela (6 + 1) | seŋ | kɔnɔndɔ | taŋ |
| Vai-Kono | Kono | ncélen / ncéle, dɔ́ndo | fèa | sàwa | náani | dúʔu | wɔ́ɔlɔ | wɔ́nfèa / ɔ́ɱfèa | séi / séin | kɔ̀nɔ́ntɔn | tán |
| Vai-Kono | Vai | lɔ̀ndɔ́ | fɛ̀(ʔ)á | sàk͡pá | náánì | sóó(ʔ)ú | sɔ̂ŋ lɔ̀ndɔ́ (5 + 1) | sɔ̂ŋ fɛ̀(ʔ)á (5 + 2) | sɔ̂ŋ sàk͡pá (5 + 3) | sɔ̂ŋ náánì (5 + 4) | tâŋ |
| Susu-Yalunka | Susu | kérén [kɛ́rɛ̃́] | fìrín [fìrĩ́] | sàxán [sàxã́] | náání | súlí | sénní [sẽní] (5 + 1) | sólófèré (5 + 2) | sólómásàxán (5 + 3) | sólómánáání (5 + 4) | fuú |
| Susu-Yalunka | Yalunka (1) | kèdé | fìríŋ | sàkáŋ | nànì | sùlù | sènì (5 + 1) | fòlófɛ̀rɛ́ (5 + 2) | fòlòmàsàkáŋ (5 + 3) | fòlòmànànì (5 + 4) | fù |
| Susu-Yalunka | Yalunka (Jalonke) (2) | keden | fidin | saxan | naani | suuli | sɛnni (5 + 1) | solofɛdɛ (5 + 2) | solomasɛɡɛ (5 + 3) | solomanaani (5 + 4) | fuu |
| Kpelle | Guinea Kpelle | tááŋ | hvèèlɛ̌ / hvèèlɛ́ | hààbǎ / hààbá | nááŋ́ | lɔ́ɔ́lí | mɛ̀í dà (5 + 1) | mɛ̀ì hvéélɛ̀ (5 + 2) | mɛ̀ì háábà (5 + 3) | mɛ̀ì nááŋ́ (5 + 4) | pòǔ |
| Kpelle | Liberia Kpelle | taaŋ / tɔnɔ / dɔnɔ | feerɛ | saaɓa | náaŋ | nɔ́ɔlu / lɔ́ɔlu | mɛi da (5 + 1) | mɛi feerɛ (5 + 2) | mɛi saaɓa (5 + 3) | mɛi náaŋ (5 + 4) | puu |
| Mende-Loma | Looma (Toma) (1) | ɡílàɡ | félé(ɡɔ̀) | sáwà(ɡɔ̀) | náánĩ̀(ɡɔ̀) | dɔ́ɔ́lù̀(ɡɔ̀) | dòzìtà (5 + 1) | dɔ́fèlà (5 + 2) | dɔ́sáwà (5 + 3) | tàwù̀(ɡɔ̀) (10–1) ? | pù̀(ɡɔ̀) |
| Mende-Loma | Loma (2) | ɡila | feleɡɔ | saaɡɔ | naaɡɔ | dooluo | dɔzita (5 + 1) | dɔfela (5 + 2) | dɔsava (5 + 3) | taawu (10–1) ? | puu |
| Mende-Loma | Bandi (1) | ìtá(ŋ), hítà(ŋ) | fèlé(ŋ) | sàwá(ŋ), sàá(ŋ) | náánì(ŋ) | ndɔ̀ɔ́lú(ŋ) | nɡɔ̀hítá(ŋ) (5 + 1) | ŋɡɔ̀félà(ŋ) (5 + 2) | ŋɡɔ̀hák͡pá(ŋ), ŋɡwahák͡pá(ŋ) (5+ 4) | tààwú(ŋ), tààvú(ŋ) (10–1) ? | pû(ŋ), púù(ŋ) |
| Mende-Loma | Bandi (2) | iitá | feelé | saawá | naáni | ndɔɔ́lu | nɡɔhíta (5 + 1) | nɡɔféla (5 + 2) | nɡwahák͡pa (5 + 3) | taávu (10–1) ? | púu |
| Mende-Loma | Loko (1) | íla(ŋ) | félé(ŋ), féé(ŋ) | sáwá(ŋ), cáwá(ŋ) | nááí(ŋ) | ńdɔu(ŋ) | ŋɡɔhita (5 + 1) | ŋɡɔfɛla (5 + 2) | ŋɡɔsaak͡pa | karaabu, raabu | puu(ŋ), kapuu(ŋ) |
| Mende-Loma | Loko (2) | ila | fele | itʃawa | naiŋ | ndɔu | nɡɔita (5 + 1) | nɡɔfla (5 + 2) | nɡɔsaɡ͡ba (5 + 3) | karabu (10–1) ? | kapu |
| Mende-Loma | Mende | yilá / itáá | felé | sawá | nááni | lɔ́ɔ́lu | wɔ́íta (5 + 1) | wɔ́fíla (5 + 2) | wáyák͡pá (5 + 3) | táálú (10–1) ? | puú |
| Samogo | Duungooma | sɔʔi | fíʔi | ʒiʔi | naai | nũ | tũmɛ̃ | ɲɛ̃ːnũ | ŋaai | kleːlo | ceũ |
| Samogo | Dzùùngoo | sōː ́ / sōːrē | fíː / fíːkí | ʒìːɡī ́ | nàːlẽ́ | nũ̀ | tsũ̀mɛ̃̄ ́ | ɲɛ̃̀ːnṹ | ŋáːlõ̀ | kjèːrṍ | tsjéù |
| Samogo | Jowulu (Jo) | tẽẽna | fuuli | bʒei | pʃɪrɛᶦ | tãã | tãmãnɪ (5 + 1) | dʒɔ̃mpʊn (3 + 4) | fulpʊn (2 x 4) | tẽmpʊn (5 + 4) | bʒĩĩ |
| Samogo | Seeku | swɛ̃̄ | fĩ́ | ʃwɛ̀ | nàà | nɔ̄ | tsìì | ɲɛ̀ɛ̀ | kàà | kùòmɛ̀ | tó |
| Soninke-Bobo | Konabéré | tálɪ̄ | pálà | sǎ | nìã̄ | kʊ̄ | kʊ̀tã́nɪ̀ (5 + 1) | kʊ̀rʊ̀párá (5 + 2) | kʊ̀rʊ̀sɔ̄ʊ̀ (5 + 3) | kʊ̀rʊ̀nɔ̂ŋ (5 + 4) | m̥ḿ̩ |
| Soninke-Bobo | Southern Bobo Madare | tèlé | plá | sáà | náà | kóò | kònálá (5 + 1) | kòk͡pùrá (5 + 2) | kórósɔ̃̌ (5 + 3) | kórónɔ̃̌ (5 + 4) | fʊ̃̀ |
| Soninke-Bobo | Hainyaxo Bozo (Kelenga) | sâ:nà | fíenù | sí:yù | ná:nà | kɔ́lɔ́hɔ̀ | tú:mì | dʒíenì | sɛ́kì | káfì | tã̄ |
| Soninke-Bobo | Tièmà-Cièwè Bozo | sàn:á | pẽ̀ːndé | sì:yé | nà:rá | kɔ̀lɔ́ | tù:mì | dʒiènĩ́ | tʃèkí | kìáwí | tá |
| Soninke-Bobo | Tiéyaxo Bozo (Tigemaxo) (1) | sáná | fẽ́:ndè | sí:yò | kɔ́lɔ̀ | kɔ́lɔ̀ | tú:mĩ̀ | dʒê:nì | sɛ̄kī | kìáwì | tã́ |
| Soninke-Bobo | Tiéyaxo Bozo (2) | sanna / kuɔn | fendeen / pendeen | siiyon | naaran | kɔlɔn | tuumi | jeeni | sekiin | kiawi | tan |
| Soninke-Bobo | Jenaama Bozo (1) | sànːá | pẽ̀ndéː | síkɛ̃̀ũ | nàtã́ | kɔ̀ːɡṍ | tǔːmí | yíèní | sèkːí | kàpːí | tʃɛ́mí |
| Soninke-Bobo | Jenaama Bozo (2) | sanna | pende | sikɛũ / siɡɛũ | nataũ | kɔɡõ | tuumi | yeeni | seki | kapi | tʃɛmi / tʃami |
| Soninke-Bobo | Soninke | bàanè | fíllò / filːi | síkkò / sikːi | náɣátò / naɣati | káráɡò / karaɡi | tṹmù / tũmi | ɲérù / ɲeri | séɡù / seɡi | kábù / kabi | tã́mú / tãmi |
See also
- List of Proto-Mande reconstructions (Wiktionary)
- List of Proto-West Mande reconstructions (Wiktionary)
- Manding languages
- Mandé
- Mende language
References
- Vydrin, Valentin (2018). "Mande Languages". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.397. ISBN 978-0-19-938465-5.
- Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (2008). "Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continent". Language and Linguistics Compass. 2 (5): 840–858. doi:10.1111/j.1749-818x.2008.00085.x. ISSN 1749-818X.
- Güldemann, Tom (2018). "Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa". In Güldemann, Tom (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of Africa. The World of Linguistics series. Vol. 11. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 58–444. doi:10.1515/9783110421668-002. ISBN 978-3-11-042606-9. S2CID 133888593.
Overall, unless more robust and systematic evidence is brought forward, the long-standing but vague idea that Mande is distant from the rest of Niger-Kordofanian as one of its earliest offshoots should give way to the neutral assessment that it is a family without a proven genealogical affiliation (p. 192).
- D.F. McCall, "The Cultural Map and Time Profile of the Mande Speaking Peoples," in C.T. Hodge (ed.). Papers on the Manding, Indiana University, Bloomington, 1971.
- Vydrin, Valentin. "On the Problem of the Proto-Mande Homeland" (PDF). Journal of Language Relationship. Journal of Language Relationship.
- Delafosse, Maurice (1901). Essai de manuel pratique de la langue mandé ou mandingue ... Institut national de langues et civilisations orientales. OCLC 461494818.
- Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (2011). Historical Linguistics and the Comparative Study of African Languages. John Benjamins. ISBN 978-90-272-8722-9.
- Valentin Vydrin. Toward a Proto-Mande reconstruction and an etymological dictionary. Faits de langues, Peter Lang, 2016, Comparatisme et reconstruction : tendances actuelles (Dir. K. Pozdniakov), pp. 109–123. halshs-01375776
- "Mande language family". mandelang.kunstkamera.ru. Retrieved 2019-03-25.
- Kastenholz, Raimund (1996). Sprachgeschichte im West-Mande : Methoden und Rekonstruktionen. Köln: Köppe. p. 281. ISBN 3896450719. OCLC 42295840.
- Heine, Bernd; Nurse, Derek, eds. (2000). African languages : an introduction. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521661781. OCLC 42810789.
- Vydrin, Valentin. 2016. Toward a Proto-Mande reconstruction and an etymological dictionary. Faits de Langues 47: 109–124.
- Kastenholz, Raimund (1996). Sprachgeschichte im West-Mande: Methoden und Rekonstruktionen. Mande Languages and Linguistics / Langues et Linguistique Mandé, 2. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag. 281 p.
- Bimson, Kent (1976). Comparative reconstruction of Mandekan. In Studies in African Linguistics, Vol 7, No 3 (1976).
- Schreiber, Henning. 2008. Eine historische Phonologie der Niger-Volta-Sprachen: Ein Beitrag zur Erforschung der Sprachgeschichte der östlichen Ost-Mandesprachen (Mande Languages and Linguistics 7). Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe.
- Vydrin, Valentin. 2007. South Mande reconstruction: Initial consonants. In: Аспекты компаративистики 2. Orientalia et classica XI: Труды Института восточных культур и античн.
- Dwyer, David J. 1988. Towards Proto-Mande phonology. Mandenkan 14/15, p. 139-152. Paris.
- Chan, Eugene (2019). "The Niger-Congo Language Phylum". Numeral Systems of the World's Languages.
Sources
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- Delafosse, Maurice (1901) Essai de manuel pratique de la langue mandé ou mandingue. Paris : Leroux. 304 p.
- Delafosse, Maurice (1904) Vocabulaires comparatifs de plus de soixante langues ou dialectes parlés à la Ivory Coast et dans les régions limitrophes, avec des notes linguistiques et ethnologiques. Paris : Leroux. 285 p.
- Halaoui, Nazam, Kalilou Tera, Monique Trabi (1983) Atlas des langues mandé – sud de Ivory Coast. Abidjan : ACCT-ILA.
- Kastenholz, Raimund (1996) Sprachgeschichte im West-Mande: Methoden und Rekonstruktionen. Mande Languages and Linguistics · Langues et Linguistique Mandé, 2. Köln : Rüdiger Köppe Verlag. 281 p.
- Perekhvalskaya, Elena & Vydrin, Valentin. Numeral systems in Mande languages. Mandenkan 61, 2019, pp. 47–111.
- Steinthal, Heymann (1867) Die Mande-Negersprachen, psychologisch und phonetisch betrachtet. Berlin: Schade. 344 p.
- Sullivan, Terrence D. 2004 [1983]. A preliminary report of existing information on the Manding languages of West Africa: Summary and suggestions for future research. SIL Electronic Survey Report. Dallas, SIL International.
- Vydrine, Valentin, T.G. Bergman and Matthew Benjamin (2000) Mandé language family of West Africa: Location and genetic classification. SIL Electronic Survey Report. Dallas, SIL International.
- Vydrin, Valentin. On the problem of the Proto-Mande homeland // Вопросы языкового родства – Journal of Language Relationship 1, 2009, pp. 107–142.
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- Vydrin, Valentin. Mande languages. Oxford Research Encyclopedias: Linguistics. Oxford University Press, 2018.
- Welmers, William E.(1971) Niger–Congo, Mande. In Linguistics in Sub-Saharan Africa (Current Trends in Linguistics,7), Thomas A. Sebeok, Jade Berry, Joseph H. Greenberg et al. (eds.), 113–140. The Hague: Mouton.
- Williamson, Kay, and Roger Blench (2000) "Niger–Congo". In Heine & Nurse, eds., African Languages.