Yolŋu languages

Yolŋu Matha (IPA: [ˈjuːŋuːl ˈmaːtaː]), meaning the 'Yolŋu tongue', is a linguistic family that includes the languages of the Yolngu (also known as the Yolŋu and Yuulngu languages), the indigenous people of northeast Arnhem Land in northern Australia. The ŋ in Yolŋu is pronounced as the velar nasal or the ng in singing.

Yolŋu Matha
Yuulngu
EthnicityYolngu
Geographic
distribution		In northeastern Arnhem Land, including Elcho Island, Crocodile Islands, Wessel Islands, English Company’s Islands, Northern Territory, Australia
Linguistic classificationPama–Nyungan
  • Yolŋu Matha
SubdivisionsSigned form:
Yolŋu Sign Language
Glottologyuul1239
Yolŋu languages (green) among other Pama–Nyungan (tan)

Varieties

Yolŋu Matha consists of about six languages, some mutually intelligible, divided into about thirty clan varieties and perhaps twelve different dialects, each with its own Yolŋu name. Put together, there are about 4600 speakers of Yolŋu Matha languages. Exogamy has often meant that mothers and fathers speak different languages, so that children traditionally grew up at least bilingual, and in many cases polylingual, meaning that communication was facilitated by mastery of multiple languages and dialects of Yolŋu Matha. The linguistic situation is very complicated, given that each of the 30 or so clans also has a named language variety. Dixon (2002) distinguishes the following:[1]

Crocodile Safety. Danger. Crocodiles have been sighted recently in this area. Bäru dhiyala wäŋaŋura nhäŋala. Keep away from the waters edge. Yaka galki gapuŋura dhärriya. Do not enter the water. Yaka ḻup'thurra gapulili. Do not feed crocodiles. Yaka wikaŋa wayin bäruwu.
A bilingual sign in both English and Yolŋu Matha warning about crocodiles in Yirrkala, Northern Territory.
Dhangu-Djangu languageNhangu languageDhuwal languageRitharngu languageDjinang languageDjinba language
Wan.gurriGamalaŋgaGupapuynguRitharnguYirritjingGanhalpuyngu (Ganalbiŋu)
LamamirriGorryindiGumatjWagilakWurlakiManjdjalpuyngu (Mandjalpiŋu)
RirratjinguMäḻarraDjambarrpuynguDjardiwitjibi
GaalpuBindarraDjapuMildjingi
NgayimilNgurruwuluLiyagalawumirrBalmbi
WarramiriWalamanguGuyamirliliDjuwing
MandatjaDhalwanguMarrangu
DjarrwarkMurrungun
Manyarring

Bowern (2011) adds the varieties in parentheses as distinct languages.

Phonology

Consonants

The consonant inventory is basically the same across Yolŋu varieties, although some varieties show minor differences.[2]

Peripheral Apical Laminal Glottal
Bilabial Velar Alveolar Dental Retroflex Palatal Glottal
Plosive Lenis b̥ ⟨b⟩ ɡ̊ ⟨g⟩ d̥ ⟨d⟩ d̪̥ ⟨dh⟩ ɖ̥ ⟨d̠⟩ ɟ̊ ⟨dj⟩ ʔ ⟨'⟩
Fortis p ⟨p⟩ k ⟨k⟩ t ⟨t⟩ t̪ ⟨th⟩ ʈ ⟨t̠⟩ c ⟨tj⟩
Nasals m ⟨m⟩ ŋ ⟨ŋ⟩ n ⟨n⟩ n̪ ⟨nh⟩ ɳ ⟨n̠⟩ ɲ ⟨ny⟩
Rhotics r ⟨rr⟩ ɻ ⟨r⟩
Laterals l ⟨l⟩ ɭ ⟨l̠⟩
Approximants w ⟨w⟩ j ⟨y⟩

Yolŋu languages have a fortis–lenis contrast in plosive consonants. Lenis/short plosives have weak contact and intermittent voicing, while fortis/long plosives have full closure, a more powerful release burst, and no voicing.

Vowels
Front Central Back
Close i ⟨i⟩, iː ⟨e⟩ u ⟨u⟩, uː ⟨o⟩
Open a ⟨a⟩, aː ⟨ä⟩

A three-way vowel distinction is shared between Yolŋu varieties, though not all Yolŋu varieties have a contrast in vowel length. In the varieties that do have a length contrast, long vowels occur only in the initial syllable of words.[3]

The films Ten Canoes (2006) and Charlie's Country (2013), both directed by Rolf de Heer and featuring actor David Gulpilil, feature dialogue in Yolŋu Matha. Ten Canoes was the first feature film to be shot entirely in Australian indigenous languages, with the dialogue largely in the Ganalbiŋu variety of Yolŋu Matha.

Dr. G. Yunupingu was a popular Australian singer who sang in the Gumatj dialect of Yolŋu Matha, as did the Aboriginal rock group Yothu Yindi.

Baker Boy, from the community of Milingimbi in North Eastern Arnhem Land released the song "Cloud 9" in 2017, in which he raps in Yolŋu Matha.[4] As Young Australian of the Year in 2019, the International Year of Indigenous Languages, and with two of his songs in the 2019 Triple J Hottest 100,[5] he raised the profile of Yolŋu Matha in mainstream media as well as giving people at home pride in their language.[6][7][8]

Dictionaries and resources

Dictionaries have been produced by Beulah Lowe, David Zorc and Michael Christie. A free, web-based searchable dictionary created by John Greatorex was launched in February 2015 by Charles Darwin University.

There are also several grammars of Yolŋu languages by Jeffrey Heath, Frances Morphy, Melanie Wilkinson and others.[9]

A graduate certificate in Yolŋu studies is offered at Charles Darwin University, teaching Yolŋu kinship, law and the Gupapuyŋu language variety.

ABC Indigenous News Radio broadcasts a news program in Yolngu Matha and also in Warlpiri on weekdays. The Aboriginal Resource and Development Services (ARDS) broadcast live radio in northeast Arnhem Land, Darwin and Palmerston and provide recordings of past programs on the internet.[10]

Words and expressions
Further information: Yolŋu
  • Gakal 'skill, talent, ability'
  • Bäru 'crocodile'
  • Gapumirr 'with water' (bucket with water), 'watery'.[11]
  • Manymak 'good, OK'
  • Yol or Yo (pronounced 'yo') 'yes'
  • Yo manymak when used together the expression can be synonymous with either of its two component words and also used as a friendly greeting, the 'o' in yo is usually held for longer when used as part of this expression.
  • Yaka 'ghost'
  • Yothu 'child'
  • Akka ‘sister’
  • Yindi 'big'
  • Yothu Yindi denotes the link between two different entities which is characterised as a mother-child relationship.[12]

Austronesian loanwords

Like other languages of the Top End, Yolŋu-Matha contains many loanwords from Austronesian languages due to abundant contact with seafaring peoples from the Indonesian archipelago.[13][14][15][16] Walker and Zorc[13] have identified 179 Yolŋu-Matha words that are clearly of Austronesian origin, and have identified a further 70 possible Austronesian loanwords requiring further study.

Examples of Austronesian loanwords in Yolngu-Matha [13]
Yolngu wordAustronesian source languageAustronesian wordMeaning in English
balaʔMakassaresebállaʔhouse
balalaMakassaresebalálagreedy
balaŋuMakassaresebalaŋoanchor
balukaMakassaresepalúkkathief
baːwʔMakassarese or Buginesebáuʔfragrance
gaːruŋMalaykaroŋsack
barawuMalayperahuboat

Vocabulary

Capell (1942) lists the following basic vocabulary items:[17]

glossWan‘guriWarameriGalbuRiraidjangoYanangoGolbaGobabwingoDjambarbwingoDalwongoRidarngoGomaidjManggaliliMaṙaṙbaDjinbaYandjinang
man jọlŋọjọlŋọjọlŋọjọlŋọjọlŋọjọlŋọjọlŋọjọlŋọjọlŋọjọlŋọjọlŋọjọlŋọjọlŋọjulŋidjäriwidji
woman baɖamibaɖamimiälgda‘igamiälgmiälgmiälgmiälgmareːbuludiŋ‘daigaːwurudaigaːwurumiälgmiälgmiːlg
head muɽguɽmuɽguɽumulguɽmulguɽdaːmbudaːmbulialiamulguɽlialialiamulguɽgungugɔɳgi
eye maŋudjimaŋudjimiːl, maŋudjimiːlmaŋudjimiːlmiːlmiːlmaŋudjimiːlmiːlmiːlmiːlmilimïːl
nose ŋọrọgamuruŋọrọŋọrọgamuruŋọrọŋọrọŋọrọŋọrọŋọrọŋọrọŋọrọŋɔrɛŋɔrɛ
mouth ḏadjurwaraḏaḏadurwaraḏaḏaḏaḏɛlŋḏaḏaḏaɽariɽari
tongue ŋaːnarmaḏamaḏaŋaːnarŋaːnarmadamaḏamaḏaŋaːnarmaḏaŋaːnarŋaːnarmaḏadjäliŋandjɛlaŋ
stomach gurugulungulundulmọgulungulungulungulundulmọgulungulungulungulungulunbudjiri
bone maṙiṙinŋaɽagaŋaɽagaŋaɽagamaṙiṙinŋaɽagaŋaɽagŋaɽagaŋaɽagaŋaɽagaŋaɽagaŋaɽagaŋaɽagaŋiɽigɛ
blood gulaŋjilaŋgulaŋgulaŋgulaŋgulaŋmaŋgo, gulaŋmaŋgo, gulaŋgulaŋgulagulaŋwuɽuŋgulgulaŋgulaŋbɔṙɛ
kangaroo wiːɖiwiːɖimundbiamulbiawiːɖiwiːɖiwiːɖiganguɽulŋarggọmulbiamulbiamulbiaŋarggọŋargọ
possum ɽubumarŋomarŋomarŋomarŋomarŋomarŋomarŋoɽubumarŋomarŋoɽubumarŋomärŋomarŋo
emu maluiːjawurban’malujamaluiːjabaɖaːwumawurbanwurbanwurbanwurbanwurbanwurbanwurban
crow galgmandawaːggälgäriŋọwaːggalgmandawaːgwaːgwaːgwaːgiawaːgwaːgwaːgwaːgiawaːgire
fly buadgädiŋälọwurubulbuadbuadwurululwurululgädiŋälibuadgädiŋälọgädiŋäliwurululbolgimuruläl
sun walọwalọwalọwalọbïːnwalọwalọwalọlarŋgaiwalirwalọwalọwalọdjäɽbiɽwalir
moon wa̱lmuraboːlaŋaɭindiwa̱lmurawalmurawa̱lmuraŋaɭindiŋaɭindiŋaɭindiŋaɭindi, gulgiaŋaɭindiwirmunaɭindigalgiɽangu
fire ŋurdjaŋurdjaḏäŋuḏaḏäŋuḏabwiːmarguɽda̱guɽḏaguɽḏaḏäŋuḏaguɽḏagoɽḏa’bujugaŋuɽadjoŋgɛdjoŋgɛ
smoke ŋawurŋawurḏiliwurŋäräliŋäräliḏiliwurḏiliwurḏiliwurŋärälibaːnḏiliwurdiliwurŋärälimälggɛŋaɽimbi
water ŋargulagaɽmagmagadigabugabugabugabugabugudjärggabugabugudjäɽggabugabigabe

Notes
  1. Dixon, R. M. W. (2002). Australian Languages: Their Nature and Development. Cambridge University Press. p. xxxvi.
  2. Wilkinson, Melanie (2012). Djambarrpuyŋu: A Yolŋu Variety of Northern Australia. Muenchen: Lincom Europa. pp. 44–45. ISBN 978-3-86288-360-8.
  3. Wilkinson, Melanie (2012). Djambarrpuyŋuː A Yolŋu Variety of Northern Australia. Muenchen: Lincom Europa. pp. 44–45. ISBN 978-3-86288-360-8.
  4. ABC News
  5. "1-100: Hottest 100 2017 - triple j". ABC (Australian Broadcasting Corporation). 11 November 2011. Retrieved 27 January 2020.
  6. Reich, Hannah (25 January 2020). "Baker Boy ends his tenure as Young Australian of the Year by taking Yolngu language and dance further into the mainstream". ABC News (ABC Arts; Stop Everything!). Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 26 January 2020.
  7. Kelly, Barb (25 January 2019). "Baker Boy is named 2019 Young Australian of the Year" (video). ABC News. Retrieved 26 January 2020.
  8. Newstead, Al (28 January 2018). "Baker Boy brings Indigenous language to the Hottest 100 top end". triple j. Retrieved 27 January 2020.
  9. ARDS Language Publications
  10. "Spanning the gap". ARDS Aboriginal Cultural and Creative Services Northern Territory. Retrieved 5 March 2022.
  11. Trudgen, Richard, 2000, 'Thirteen years of wanting to know', Why warriors lie down and die, Aboriginal Resource and Development Services, Inc. Darwin, pp. 97-112
  12. Christie, Michael J. (2013). Yolŋu language and culture: Study Notes. Darwin, Australia: Yolŋu Studies, Charles Darwin University. p. 40. ISBN 978-1-921576-20-1.
  13. Walker, Alan; Zorc, R. David (1 January 2011). "Austronesian Loanwords in Yolngu-Matha of Northeast Arnhem Land" (PDF). Aboriginal History. 5 (2). doi:10.22459/AH.05.2011.07.
  14. Evans, Nicholas (1 August 1997). Archaeology and Linguistics: Aboriginal Australia in Global Perspective. OUP Australia and New Zealand. pp. 237–260. ISBN 0195506707.
  15. Thomas, Paul (June 2013). Macassan History and Heritage: Journeys, Encounters and Influences - Chapter 5 Interpreting the Macassans: Language exchange in historical encounters (PDF). ANU Press. ISBN 9781922144966.
  16. Schapper, Antoinette (19 January 2022). "Beyond 'Macassans': Speculations on layers of Austronesian contact in northern Australia". Australian Journal of Linguistics. 41 (4): 434–452. doi:10.1080/07268602.2021.2000365. S2CID 246070761.
  17. Capell, Arthur. 1941-1942, 1942-1943. Languages of Arnhem Land, North Australia. Oceania 12: 364-392, 13: 24-51.

References
  • Yolngu.net: grammar, vocabulary, history
  • Aboriginal Resource and Development Services (ARDS)
  • Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Yolŋu Matha course
  • ARDS Rhombuy Dhäwu: Legal English-Yolngu Matha Online Dictionary
  • Trudgen, Richard, Why Warriors Lie Down & Die , ARDS, Darwin, 2000.
  • Examples of Yolngu Matha being spoken
  • Radio National story
  • Watson, Helen and David Wade Chambers (with the Yolngu community at Yirrkala). Singing the Land, Signing the Land. Deakin University.
  • Madayin Law in Yolngu and English

Further reading
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