Carbon dioxide

The symmetry of a carbon dioxide molecule is linear and centrosymmetric at its equilibrium geometry. The length of the carbon-oxygen bond in carbon dioxide is 116.3 pm, noticeably shorter than the roughly 140-pm length of a typical single C–O bond, and shorter than most other C–O multiply-bonded functional groups such as carbonyls.[32] Since it is centrosymmetric, the molecule has no electric dipole moment.

Stretching and bending oscillations of the CO₂ carbon dioxide molecule. Upper left: symmetric stretching. Upper right: antisymmetric stretching. Lower line: degenerate pair of bending modes.

As a linear triatomic molecule, CO₂ has four vibrational modes as shown in the diagram. In the symmetric and the antisymmetric stretching modes, the atoms move along the axis of the molecule. There are two bending modes, which are degenerate, meaning that they have the same frequency and same energy, because of the symmetry of the molecule. When a molecule touches a surface or touches another molecule, the two bending modes can differ in frequency because the interaction is different for the two modes. Some of the vibrational modes are observed in the infrared (IR) spectrum: the antisymmetric stretching mode at wavenumber 2349 cm⁻¹ (wavelength 4.25 μm) and the degenerate pair of bending modes at 667 cm⁻¹ (wavelength 15 μm). The symmetric stretching mode does not create an electric dipole so is not observed in IR spectroscopy, but it is detected in by Raman spectroscopy at 1388 cm⁻¹ (wavelength 7.2 μm).[33]

In the gas phase, carbon dioxide molecules undergo significant vibrational motions and do not keep a fixed structure. However, in a Coulomb explosion imaging experiment, an instantaneous image of the molecular structure can be deduced. Such an experiment[34] has been performed for carbon dioxide. The result of this experiment, and the conclusion of theoretical calculations[35] based on an ab initio potential energy surface of the molecule, is that none of the molecules in the gas phase are ever exactly linear.

Carbon dioxide is soluble in water, in which it reversibly forms H₂CO₃ (carbonic acid), which is a weak acid since its ionization in water is incomplete.

${\displaystyle {\ce {CO2 + H2O <=> H2CO3}}}$

The hydration equilibrium constant of carbonic acid is, at 25 °C:

${\displaystyle K_{\mathrm {h} }={\frac {{\ce {[H2CO3]}}}{{\ce {[CO2_{(aq)}]}}}}=1.70\times 10^{-3}}$

Hence, the majority of the carbon dioxide is not converted into carbonic acid, but remains as CO₂ molecules, not affecting the pH.

The relative concentrations of CO₂, H₂CO₃, and the deprotonated forms HCO−3 (bicarbonate) and CO2−3(carbonate) depend on the pH. As shown in a Bjerrum plot, in neutral or slightly alkaline water (pH > 6.5), the bicarbonate form predominates (>50%) becoming the most prevalent (>95%) at the pH of seawater. In very alkaline water (pH > 10.4), the predominant (>50%) form is carbonate. The oceans, being mildly alkaline with typical pH = 8.2–8.5, contain about 120 mg of bicarbonate per liter.

Being diprotic, carbonic acid has two acid dissociation constants, the first one for the dissociation into the bicarbonate (also called hydrogen carbonate) ion (HCO−3):

${\displaystyle {\ce {H2CO3 <=> HCO3- + H+}}}$

K_a1 = 2.5×10⁻⁴ mol/L; pK_a1 = 3.6 at 25 °C.[32]

This is the true first acid dissociation constant, defined as

${\displaystyle K_{\mathrm {a1} }={\frac {{\ce {[HCO3- ][H+]}}}{{\ce {[H2CO3]}}}}}$

where the denominator includes only covalently bound H₂CO₃ and does not include hydrated CO_2(aq). The much smaller and often-quoted value near 4.16×10⁻⁷ is an apparent value calculated on the (incorrect) assumption that all dissolved CO₂ is present as carbonic acid, so that

${\displaystyle K_{\mathrm {a1} }{\rm {(apparent)}}={\frac {{\ce {[HCO3- ][H+]}}}{{\ce {[H2CO3] + [CO2_{(aq)}]}}}}}$

Since most of the dissolved CO₂remains as CO₂ molecules, K_a1(apparent) has a much larger denominator and a much smaller value than the true K_a1.[36]

The bicarbonate ion is an amphoteric species that can act as an acid or as a base, depending on pH of the solution. At high pH, it dissociates significantly into the carbonate ion (CO2−3):

${\displaystyle {\ce {HCO3- <=> CO3^2- + H+}}}$

K_a2 = 4.69×10⁻¹¹ mol/L; pK_a2 = 10.329

In organisms carbonic acid production is catalysed by the enzyme, carbonic anhydrase.

CO₂ is a potent electrophile having an electrophilic reactivity that is comparable to benzaldehyde or strong α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds. However, unlike electrophiles of similar reactivity, the reactions of nucleophiles with CO₂ are thermodynamically less favored and are often found to be highly reversible.[37] Only very strong nucleophiles, like the carbanions provided by Grignard reagents and organolithium compounds react with CO₂ to give carboxylates:

${\displaystyle {\ce {MR + CO2 -> RCO2M}}}$

where M = Li or Mg Br and R = alkyl or aryl.

In metal carbon dioxide complexes, CO₂ serves as a ligand, which can facilitate the conversion of CO₂ to other chemicals.[38]

The reduction of CO₂ to CO is ordinarily a difficult and slow reaction:

${\displaystyle {\ce {CO2 + 2 e- + 2H+ -> CO + H2O}}}$

Photoautotrophs (i.e. plants and cyanobacteria) use the energy contained in sunlight to photosynthesize simple sugars from CO₂ absorbed from the air and water:

${\displaystyle {\ce {{\mathit {n}}CO2{}+{\mathit {n}}H2O->(CH2O)_{\mathit {n}}{}+{\mathit {n}}O2}}}$

The redox potential for this reaction near pH 7 is about −0.53 V versus the standard hydrogen electrode. The nickel-containing enzyme carbon monoxide dehydrogenase catalyses this process.[39]

Pellets of "dry ice", a common form of solid carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide is colorless. At low concentrations the gas is odorless; however, at sufficiently high concentrations, it has a sharp, acidic odor.[1] At standard temperature and pressure, the density of carbon dioxide is around 1.98 kg/m³, about 1.53 times that of air.[40]

Carbon dioxide has no liquid state at pressures below 0.51795(10) MPa[2] (5.11177(99) atm). At a pressure of 1 atm (0.101325 MPa), the gas deposits directly to a solid at temperatures below 194.6855(30) K[2] (−78.4645(30) °C) and the solid sublimes directly to a gas above this temperature. In its solid state, carbon dioxide is commonly called dry ice.

Pressure–temperature phase diagram of carbon dioxide. Note that it is a log-lin chart.

Liquid carbon dioxide forms only at pressures above 0.51795(10) MPa[2] (5.11177(99) atm); the triple point of carbon dioxide is 216.592(3) K[2] (−56.558(3) °C) at 0.51795(10) MPa[2] (5.11177(99) atm) (see phase diagram). The critical point is 304.128(15) K[2] (30.978(15) °C) at 7.3773(30) MPa[2] (72.808(30) atm). Another form of solid carbon dioxide observed at high pressure is an amorphous glass-like solid.[41] This form of glass, called carbonia, is produced by supercooling heated CO₂ at extreme pressures (40–48 GPa, or about 400,000 atmospheres) in a diamond anvil. This discovery confirmed the theory that carbon dioxide could exist in a glass state similar to other members of its elemental family, like silicon dioxide (silica glass) and germanium dioxide. Unlike silica and germania glasses, however, carbonia glass is not stable at normal pressures and reverts to gas when pressure is released.

At temperatures and pressures above the critical point, carbon dioxide behaves as a supercritical fluid known as supercritical carbon dioxide.

It is produced by thermal decomposition of limestone, CaCO
₃ by heating (calcining) at about 850 °C (1,560 °F), in the manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide, CaO), a compound that has many industrial uses:

${\displaystyle {\ce {CaCO4 -> CaO + CO2}}}$

Acids liberate CO₂ from most metal carbonates. Consequently, it may be obtained directly from natural carbon dioxide springs, where it is produced by the action of acidified water on limestone or dolomite. The reaction between hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate (limestone or chalk) is shown below:

${\displaystyle {\ce {CaCO3 + 2HCl -> CaCl2 + H2CO3}}}$

The carbonic acid (H
₂CO
₃) then decomposes to water and CO₂:

${\displaystyle {\ce {H2CO3 -> CO2 + H2O}}}$

Such reactions are accompanied by foaming or bubbling, or both, as the gas is released. They have widespread uses in industry because they can be used to neutralize waste acid streams.

Carbon dioxide is a by-product of the fermentation of sugar in the brewing of beer, whisky and other alcoholic beverages and in the production of bioethanol. Yeast metabolizes sugar to produce CO₂ and ethanol, also known as alcohol, as follows:

${\displaystyle {\ce {C6H12O6 -> 2 CO2 + 2 C2H5OH}}}$

All aerobic organisms produce CO₂ when they oxidize carbohydrates, fatty acids, and proteins. The large number of reactions involved are exceedingly complex and not described easily. Refer to (cellular respiration, anaerobic respiration and photosynthesis). The equation for the respiration of glucose and other monosaccharides is:

${\displaystyle {\ce {C6H12O6 + 6 O2 -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O}}}$

Anaerobic organisms decompose organic material producing methane and carbon dioxide together with traces of other compounds.[46] Regardless of the type of organic material, the production of gases follows well defined kinetic pattern. Carbon dioxide comprises about 40–45% of the gas that emanates from decomposition in landfills (termed "landfill gas"). Most of the remaining 50–55% is methane.[47]

In the chemical industry, carbon dioxide is mainly consumed as an ingredient in the production of urea, with a smaller fraction being used to produce methanol and a range of other products.[48] Some carboxylic acid derivatives such as sodium salicylate are prepared using CO₂ by the Kolbe-Schmitt reaction.[49]

In addition to conventional processes using CO₂ for chemical production, electrochemical methods are also being explored at a research level. In particular, the use of renewable energy for production of fuels from CO₂ (such as methanol) is attractive as this could result in fuels that could be easily transported and used within conventional combustion technologies but have no net CO₂ emissions.[50]

Plants require carbon dioxide to conduct photosynthesis. The atmospheres of greenhouses may (if of large size, must) be enriched with additional CO₂ to sustain and increase the rate of plant growth.[51][52] At very high concentrations (100 times atmospheric concentration, or greater), carbon dioxide can be toxic to animal life, so raising the concentration to 10,000 ppm (1%) or higher for several hours will eliminate pests such as whiteflies and spider mites in a greenhouse.[53]

Carbon dioxide bubbles in a soft drink

Carbon dioxide is a food additive used as a propellant and acidity regulator in the food industry. It is approved for usage in the EU[54] (listed as E number E290), US[55] and Australia and New Zealand[56] (listed by its INS number 290).

A candy called Pop Rocks is pressurized with carbon dioxide gas[57] at about 4,000 kPa (40 bar; 580 psi). When placed in the mouth, it dissolves (just like other hard candy) and releases the gas bubbles with an audible pop.

Leavening agents cause dough to rise by producing carbon dioxide.[58] Baker's yeast produces carbon dioxide by fermentation of sugars within the dough, while chemical leaveners such as baking powder and baking soda release carbon dioxide when heated or if exposed to acids.

Carbon dioxide is used to produce carbonated soft drinks and soda water. Traditionally, the carbonation of beer and sparkling wine came about through natural fermentation, but many manufacturers carbonate these drinks with carbon dioxide recovered from the fermentation process. In the case of bottled and kegged beer, the most common method used is carbonation with recycled carbon dioxide. With the exception of British real ale, draught beer is usually transferred from kegs in a cold room or cellar to dispensing taps on the bar using pressurized carbon dioxide, sometimes mixed with nitrogen.

The taste of soda water (and related taste sensations in other carbonated beverages) is an effect of the dissolved carbon dioxide rather than the bursting bubbles of the gas. Carbonic anhydrase 4 converts to carbonic acid leading to a sour taste, and also the dissolved carbon dioxide induces a somatosensory response.[59]

Dry ice used to preserve grapes after harvest

Carbon dioxide in the form of dry ice is often used during the cold soak phase in winemaking to cool clusters of grapes quickly after picking to help prevent spontaneous fermentation by wild yeast. The main advantage of using dry ice over water ice is that it cools the grapes without adding any additional water that might decrease the sugar concentration in the grape must, and thus the alcohol concentration in the finished wine. Carbon dioxide is also used to create a hypoxic environment for carbonic maceration, the process used to produce Beaujolais wine.

Carbon dioxide is sometimes used to top up wine bottles or other storage vessels such as barrels to prevent oxidation, though it has the problem that it can dissolve into the wine, making a previously still wine slightly fizzy. For this reason, other gases such as nitrogen or argon are preferred for this process by professional wine makers.

Carbon dioxide is often used to "stun" animals before slaughter.[60] "Stunning" may be a misnomer, as the animals are not knocked out immediately and may suffer distress.[61][62]

Carbon dioxide is one of the most commonly used compressed gases for pneumatic (pressurized gas) systems in portable pressure tools. Carbon dioxide is also used as an atmosphere for welding, although in the welding arc, it reacts to oxidize most metals. Use in the automotive industry is common despite significant evidence that welds made in carbon dioxide are more brittle than those made in more inert atmospheres. When used for MIG welding, CO₂ use is sometimes referred to as MAG welding, for Metal Active Gas, as CO₂ can react at these high temperatures. It tends to produce a hotter puddle than truly inert atmospheres, improving the flow characteristics. Although, this may be due to atmospheric reactions occurring at the puddle site. This is usually the opposite of the desired effect when welding, as it tends to embrittle the site, but may not be a problem for general mild steel welding, where ultimate ductility is not a major concern.

Carbon dioxide is used in many consumer products that require pressurized gas because it is inexpensive and nonflammable, and because it undergoes a phase transition from gas to liquid at room temperature at an attainable pressure of approximately 60 bar (870 psi; 59 atm), allowing far more carbon dioxide to fit in a given container than otherwise would. Life jackets often contain canisters of pressured carbon dioxide for quick inflation. Aluminium capsules of CO₂ are also sold as supplies of compressed gas for air guns, paintball markers/guns, inflating bicycle tires, and for making carbonated water. High concentrations of carbon dioxide can also be used to kill pests. Liquid carbon dioxide is used in supercritical drying of some food products and technological materials, in the preparation of specimens for scanning electron microscopy[63] and in the decaffeination of coffee beans.

Use of a CO₂ fire extinguisher

Carbon dioxide can be used to extinguish flames by flooding the environment around the flame with the gas. It does not itself react to extinguish the flame, but starves the flame of oxygen by displacing it. Some fire extinguishers, especially those designed for electrical fires, contain liquid carbon dioxide under pressure. Carbon dioxide extinguishers work well on small flammable liquid and electrical fires, but not on ordinary combustible fires, because they do not cool the burning substances significantly, and when the carbon dioxide disperses, they can catch fire upon exposure to atmospheric oxygen. They are mainly used in server rooms.[64]

Carbon dioxide has also been widely used as an extinguishing agent in fixed fire-protection systems for local application of specific hazards and total flooding of a protected space.[65] International Maritime Organization standards recognize carbon-dioxide systems for fire protection of ship holds and engine rooms. Carbon-dioxide-based fire-protection systems have been linked to several deaths, because it can cause suffocation in sufficiently high concentrations. A review of CO₂ systems identified 51 incidents between 1975 and the date of the report (2000), causing 72 deaths and 145 injuries.[66]

Liquid carbon dioxide is a good solvent for many lipophilic organic compounds and is used to remove caffeine from coffee.[17] Carbon dioxide has attracted attention in the pharmaceutical and other chemical processing industries as a less toxic alternative to more traditional solvents such as organochlorides. It is also used by some dry cleaners for this reason. It is used in the preparation of some aerogels because of the properties of supercritical carbon dioxide.

In medicine, up to 5% carbon dioxide (130 times atmospheric concentration) is added to oxygen for stimulation of breathing after apnea and to stabilize the O
₂/CO
₂ balance in blood.

Carbon dioxide can be mixed with up to 50% oxygen, forming an inhalable gas; this is known as Carbogen and has a variety of medical and research uses.

Another medical use are the mofette, dry spas that use carbon dioxide from post-volcanic discharge for therapeutic purposes.

Supercritical CO₂ is used as the working fluid in the Allam power cycle engine.

Carbon dioxide is used in enhanced oil recovery where it is injected into or adjacent to producing oil wells, usually under supercritical conditions, when it becomes miscible with the oil. This approach can increase original oil recovery by reducing residual oil saturation by between 7% to 23% additional to primary extraction.[67] It acts as both a pressurizing agent and, when dissolved into the underground crude oil, significantly reduces its viscosity, and changing surface chemistry enabling the oil to flow more rapidly through the reservoir to the removal well.[68] In mature oil fields, extensive pipe networks are used to carry the carbon dioxide to the injection points.

In enhanced coal bed methane recovery, carbon dioxide would be pumped into the coal seam to displace methane, as opposed to current methods which primarily rely on the removal of water (to reduce pressure) to make the coal seam release its trapped methane.[69]

It has been proposed that CO₂ from power generation be bubbled into ponds to stimulate growth of algae that could then be converted into biodiesel fuel.[70] A strain of the cyanobacterium Synechococcus elongatus has been genetically engineered to produce the fuels isobutyraldehyde and isobutanol from CO₂ using photosynthesis.[71]

Researchers have developed a process called electrolysis, using enzymes isolated from bacteria to power the chemical reactions which convert CO₂ into fuels.[72][73][74]

Comparison of the pressure–temperature phase diagrams of carbon dioxide (red) and water (blue) as a log-lin chart with phase transitions points at 1 atmosphere

Liquid and solid carbon dioxide are important refrigerants, especially in the food industry, where they are employed during the transportation and storage of ice cream and other frozen foods. Solid carbon dioxide is called "dry ice" and is used for small shipments where refrigeration equipment is not practical. Solid carbon dioxide is always below −78.5 °C (−109.3 °F) at regular atmospheric pressure, regardless of the air temperature.

Liquid carbon dioxide (industry nomenclature R744 or R-744) was used as a refrigerant prior to the use of dichlorodifluoromethane (R12, a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) compound). CO₂ might enjoy a renaissance because one of the main substitutes to CFCs, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (R134a, a hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) compound) contributes to climate change more than CO₂ does. CO₂ physical properties are highly favorable for cooling, refrigeration, and heating purposes, having a high volumetric cooling capacity. Due to the need to operate at pressures of up to 130 bars (1,900 psi; 13,000 kPa), CO₂ systems require highly mechanically resistant reservoirs and components that have already been developed for mass production in many sectors. In automobile air conditioning, in more than 90% of all driving conditions for latitudes higher than 50°, CO₂ (R744) operates more efficiently than systems using HFCs (e.g., R134a). Its environmental advantages (GWP of 1, non-ozone depleting, non-toxic, non-flammable) could make it the future working fluid to replace current HFCs in cars, supermarkets, and heat pump water heaters, among others. Coca-Cola has fielded CO₂-based beverage coolers and the U.S. Army is interested in CO₂ refrigeration and heating technology.[75][76]

A carbon-dioxide laser

Carbon dioxide is the lasing medium in a carbon-dioxide laser, which is one of the earliest type of lasers.

Carbon dioxide can be used as a means of controlling the pH of swimming pools,[77] by continuously adding gas to the water, thus keeping the pH from rising. Among the advantages of this is the avoidance of handling (more hazardous) acids. Similarly, it is also used in the maintaining reef aquaria, where it is commonly used in calcium reactors to temporarily lower the pH of water being passed over calcium carbonate in order to allow the calcium carbonate to dissolve into the water more freely, where it is used by some corals to build their skeleton.

Used as the primary coolant in the British advanced gas-cooled reactor for nuclear power generation.

Carbon dioxide induction is commonly used for the euthanasia of laboratory research animals. Methods to administer CO₂ include placing animals directly into a closed, prefilled chamber containing CO₂, or exposure to a gradually increasing concentration of CO₂. The American Veterinary Medical Association's 2020 guidelines for carbon dioxide induction state that a displacement rate of 30% to 70% of the chamber or cage volume per minute is optimal for the humane euthanasia of small rodents.[78]^: 5, 31 Percentages of CO₂ vary for different species, based on identified optimal percentages to minimize distress.[78]^: 22

Carbon dioxide is also used in several related cleaning and surface-preparation techniques.

Overview of the Calvin cycle and carbon fixation

Carbon fixation is a biochemical process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated by plants, algae and (cyanobacteria) into energy-rich organic molecules such as glucose, thus creating their own food by photosynthesis. Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars from which other organic compounds can be constructed, and oxygen is produced as a by-product.

Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase, commonly abbreviated to RuBisCO, is the enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation, the production of two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate from CO₂ and ribulose bisphosphate, as shown in the diagram at left.

RuBisCO is thought to be the single most abundant protein on Earth.[126]

Phototrophs use the products of their photosynthesis as internal food sources and as raw material for the biosynthesis of more complex organic molecules, such as polysaccharides, nucleic acids and proteins. These are used for their own growth, and also as the basis of the food chains and webs that feed other organisms, including animals such as ourselves. Some important phototrophs, the coccolithophores synthesise hard calcium carbonate scales.[127] A globally significant species of coccolithophore is Emiliania huxleyi whose calcite scales have formed the basis of many sedimentary rocks such as limestone, where what was previously atmospheric carbon can remain fixed for geological timescales.

Overview of photosynthesis and respiration. Carbon dioxide (at right), together with water, form oxygen and organic compounds (at left) by photosynthesis, which can be respired to water and (CO₂).

Plants can grow as much as 50 percent faster in concentrations of 1,000 ppm CO₂ when compared with ambient conditions, though this assumes no change in climate and no limitation on other nutrients.[128] Elevated CO₂ levels cause increased growth reflected in the harvestable yield of crops, with wheat, rice and soybean all showing increases in yield of 12–14% under elevated CO₂ in FACE experiments.[129][130]

Increased atmospheric CO₂ concentrations result in fewer stomata developing on plants[131] which leads to reduced water usage and increased water-use efficiency.[132] Studies using FACE have shown that CO₂ enrichment leads to decreased concentrations of micronutrients in crop plants.[133] This may have knock-on effects on other parts of ecosystems as herbivores will need to eat more food to gain the same amount of protein.[134]

The concentration of secondary metabolites such as phenylpropanoids and flavonoids can also be altered in plants exposed to high concentrations of CO₂.[135][136]

Plants also emit CO₂ during respiration, and so the majority of plants and algae, which use C3 photosynthesis, are only net absorbers during the day. Though a growing forest will absorb many tons of CO₂ each year, a mature forest will produce as much CO₂ from respiration and decomposition of dead specimens (e.g., fallen branches) as is used in photosynthesis in growing plants.[137] Contrary to the long-standing view that they are carbon neutral, mature forests can continue to accumulate carbon[138] and remain valuable carbon sinks, helping to maintain the carbon balance of Earth's atmosphere. Additionally, and crucially to life on earth, photosynthesis by phytoplankton consumes dissolved CO₂ in the upper ocean and thereby promotes the absorption of CO₂ from the atmosphere.[139]

Symptoms of carbon dioxide toxicity, by increasing volume percent in air.[140]

Carbon dioxide content in fresh air (averaged between sea-level and 10 kPa level, i.e., about 30 km (19 mi) altitude) varies between 0.036% (360 ppm) and 0.041% (412 ppm), depending on the location.[141]

CO₂ is an asphyxiant gas and not classified as toxic or harmful in accordance with Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals standards of United Nations Economic Commission for Europe by using the OECD Guidelines for the Testing of Chemicals. In concentrations up to 1% (10,000 ppm), it will make some people feel drowsy and give the lungs a stuffy feeling.[140] Concentrations of 7% to 10% (70,000 to 100,000 ppm) may cause suffocation, even in the presence of sufficient oxygen, manifesting as dizziness, headache, visual and hearing dysfunction, and unconsciousness within a few minutes to an hour.[142] The physiological effects of acute carbon dioxide exposure are grouped together under the term hypercapnia, a subset of asphyxiation.

Because it is heavier than air, in locations where the gas seeps from the ground (due to sub-surface volcanic or geothermal activity) in relatively high concentrations, without the dispersing effects of wind, it can collect in sheltered/pocketed locations below average ground level, causing animals located therein to be suffocated. Carrion feeders attracted to the carcasses are then also killed. Children have been killed in the same way near the city of Goma by CO₂ emissions from the nearby volcano Mount Nyiragongo.[143] The Swahili term for this phenomenon is 'mazuku'.

Rising levels of CO₂ threatened the Apollo 13 astronauts who had to adapt cartridges from the command module to supply the carbon dioxide scrubber in the Lunar Module, which they used as a lifeboat.

Adaptation to increased concentrations of CO₂ occurs in humans, including modified breathing and kidney bicarbonate production, in order to balance the effects of blood acidification (acidosis). Several studies suggested that 2.0 percent inspired concentrations could be used for closed air spaces (e.g. a submarine) since the adaptation is physiological and reversible, as deterioration in performance or in normal physical activity does not happen at this level of exposure for five days.[144][145] Yet, other studies show a decrease in cognitive function even at much lower levels.[146][147] Also, with ongoing respiratory acidosis, adaptation or compensatory mechanisms will be unable to reverse such condition.

There are few studies of the health effects of long-term continuous CO₂ exposure on humans and animals at levels below 1%. Occupational CO₂ exposure limits have been set in the United States at 0.5% (5000 ppm) for an eight-hour period.[148] At this CO₂ concentration, International Space Station crew experienced headaches, lethargy, mental slowness, emotional irritation, and sleep disruption.[149] Studies in animals at 0.5% CO₂ have demonstrated kidney calcification and bone loss after eight weeks of exposure.[150] A study of humans exposed in 2.5 hour sessions demonstrated significant negative effects on cognitive abilities at concentrations as low as 0.1% (1000 ppm) CO₂ likely due to CO₂ induced increases in cerebral blood flow.[146] Another study observed a decline in basic activity level and information usage at 1000 ppm, when compared to 500 ppm.[147] However a review of the literature found that most studies on the phenomenon of carbon dioxide induced cognitive impairment to have a small effect on high-level decision making and most of the studies were confounded by inadequate study designs, environmental comfort, uncertainties in exposure doses and differing cognitive assessments used.[151] Similarly a study on the effects of the concentration of CO₂ in motorcycle helmets has been criticized for having dubious methodology in not noting the self-reports of motorcycle riders and taking measurements using mannequins. Further when normal motorcycle conditions were achieved (such as highway or city speeds) or the visor was raised the concentration of CO₂ declined to safe levels (0.2%).[152][153]

CO₂ concentration meter using a nondispersive infrared sensor

Poor ventilation is one of the main causes of excessive CO₂ concentrations in closed spaces. Carbon dioxide differential above outdoor concentrations at steady state conditions (when the occupancy and ventilation system operation are sufficiently long that CO₂ concentration has stabilized) are sometimes used to estimate ventilation rates per person. Higher CO₂ concentrations are associated with occupant health, comfort and performance degradation.[154][155] ASHRAE Standard 62.1–2007 ventilation rates may result in indoor concentrations up to 2,100 ppm above ambient outdoor conditions. Thus if the outdoor concentration is 400 ppm, indoor concentrations may reach 2,500 ppm with ventilation rates that meet this industry consensus standard. Concentrations in poorly ventilated spaces can be found even higher than this (range of 3,000 or 4,000 ppm).

Miners, who are particularly vulnerable to gas exposure due to insufficient ventilation, referred to mixtures of carbon dioxide and nitrogen as "blackdamp," "choke damp" or "stythe." Before more effective technologies were developed, miners would frequently monitor for dangerous levels of blackdamp and other gases in mine shafts by bringing a caged canary with them as they worked. The canary is more sensitive to asphyxiant gases than humans, and as it became unconscious would stop singing and fall off its perch. The Davy lamp could also detect high levels of blackdamp (which sinks, and collects near the floor) by burning less brightly, while methane, another suffocating gas and explosion risk, would make the lamp burn more brightly.

In February 2020, three people died from suffocation at a party in Moscow when dry ice (frozen CO₂) was added to a swimming pool to cool it down.[156] A similar accident occurred in 2018 when a woman died from CO₂ fumes emanating from the large amount of dry ice she was transporting in her car.[157]

The body produces approximately 2.3 pounds (1.0 kg) of carbon dioxide per day per person,[159] containing 0.63 pounds (290 g) of carbon. In humans, this carbon dioxide is carried through the venous system and is breathed out through the lungs, resulting in lower concentrations in the arteries. The carbon dioxide content of the blood is often given as the partial pressure, which is the pressure which carbon dioxide would have had if it alone occupied the volume.[160] In humans, the blood carbon dioxide contents is shown in the adjacent table.

CO₂ is carried in blood in three different ways. (Exact percentages vary between arterial and venous blood).

• Majority (about 70% to 80%) is converted to bicarbonate ions HCO⁻
  ₃ by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in the red blood cells,[161] by the reaction CO₂ + H
  ₂O → H
  ₂CO
  ₃ → H⁺
  + HCO⁻
  ₃.
• 5–10% is dissolved in blood plasma[161]
• 5–10% is bound to hemoglobin as carbamino compounds[161]

Hemoglobin, the main oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells, carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide. However, the CO₂ bound to hemoglobin does not bind to the same site as oxygen. Instead, it combines with the N-terminal groups on the four globin chains. However, because of allosteric effects on the hemoglobin molecule, the binding of CO₂ decreases the amount of oxygen that is bound for a given partial pressure of oxygen. This is known as the Haldane Effect, and is important in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. Conversely, a rise in the partial pressure of CO₂ or a lower pH will cause offloading of oxygen from hemoglobin, which is known as the Bohr effect.

Carbon dioxide is one of the mediators of local autoregulation of blood supply. If its concentration is high, the capillaries expand to allow a greater blood flow to that tissue.[162]

Bicarbonate ions are crucial for regulating blood pH. A person's breathing rate influences the level of CO₂ in their blood. Breathing that is too slow or shallow causes respiratory acidosis, while breathing that is too rapid leads to hyperventilation, which can cause respiratory alkalosis.[163]

Although the body requires oxygen for metabolism, low oxygen levels normally do not stimulate breathing. Rather, breathing is stimulated by higher carbon dioxide levels. As a result, breathing low-pressure air or a gas mixture with no oxygen at all (such as pure nitrogen) can lead to loss of consciousness without ever experiencing air hunger. This is especially perilous for high-altitude fighter pilots. It is also why flight attendants instruct passengers, in case of loss of cabin pressure, to apply the oxygen mask to themselves first before helping others; otherwise, one risks losing consciousness.[161]

The respiratory centers try to maintain an arterial CO₂ pressure of 40 mm Hg. With intentional hyperventilation, the CO₂ content of arterial blood may be lowered to 10–20 mm Hg (the oxygen content of the blood is little affected), and the respiratory drive is diminished. This is why one can hold one's breath longer after hyperventilating than without hyperventilating. This carries the risk that unconsciousness may result before the need to breathe becomes overwhelming, which is why hyperventilation is particularly dangerous before free diving.[164]