Rusyn language

Rusyn (/ˈruːsɪn/;[15] Carpathian Rusyn: русиньскый язык, romanized: rusîn'skyj jazyk; Pannonian Rusyn: руски язик, romanized: ruski jazik),[16][17] is an East Slavic language spoken by Rusyns in parts of Central and Eastern Europe, and written in the Cyrillic script.[18] Within the community, the language is also referred to by the older folk term, руснацькый язык, rusnac'kyj jazyk, 'Rusnak language',[17][19] or simply referred to as speaking our way (Carpathian Rusyn: по-нашому, romanized: po nashomu).[20] The majority of speakers live in an area known as Carpathian Rus' that spans from Transcarpathia, westward into eastern Slovakia and south-east Poland.[21] There is also a sizeable Pannonian Rusyn linguistic island in Vojvodina, Serbia,[21] as well as a Rusyn diaspora throughout the world.[22][23] Per the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, Rusyn is officially recognized as a protected minority language by Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Hungary, Romania, Poland (as Lemko), Serbia, and Slovakia.[11]

Not to be confused with Pannonian Rusyn language, Ruthenian language, or Russian language.
Rusyn language
русинськый язык; руски язик
rusîns'kyj jazyk; ruski jazik
EthnicityRusyns
Native speakers
76,000.
These are numbers from national official bureaus for statistics:
Slovakia – 38,679[1]
Serbia – 15,626[2]
Poland – 10,000[3]
Ukraine – 6,725[4]
Croatia – 2,337[5]
Hungary – 1,113[6]
Czech Republic – 777[7][8]
Early forms
Proto-Indo-European
Dialects
Cyrillic script (Rusyn alphabets)
Latin script (Slovakia)[10]
Official status
Recognised minority
language in
Language codes
ISO 639-3rue
Glottologrusy1239
Linguasphere53-AAA-ec < 53-AAA-e
(varieties: 53-AAA-eca to 53-AAA-ecc)
Rusyn is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger

In the English language, the term Rusyn is recognized officially by the ISO.[24] Other names are sometimes also used to refer to the language, mainly deriving from exonyms such as Ruthenian or Ruthene (UK: /rʊˈθiːn/, US: /ruːˈθiːn/),[25] that have more general meanings, and thus (by adding regional adjectives) some specific designations are formed, such as: Carpathian Ruthenian/Ruthene or Carpatho-Ruthenian/Ruthene.[26]

The categorization of Rusyn as a language or dialect is a source of controversy.[27] Czech, Slovak, and Hungarian, as well as American and some Polish and Serbian linguists treat it as a distinct language[28] (with its own ISO 639-3 code), whereas other scholars (in Ukraine, Poland, Serbia, and Romania) treat it as a Southwestern dialect of Ukrainian.[29]

Geographic distribution

In terms of geographic distribution, Rusyn language is represented by two specific clusters: the first is encompassing Carpathian Rusyn or Carpatho-Rusyn varieties, and the second is represented by Pannonian Rusyn.[30]

Carpathian Rusyn is spoken in:

Pannonian Rusyn is spoken by the Pannonian Rusyns in the region of Vojvodina (in Serbia), and in a nearby region of Slavonia (in Croatia).

History
The Rusyn Language in History

One of the dangers of any enterprise like the codification of a language is the desire to 'see' its history go back as far as possible. This danger affects every single language that may have had difficulties in gaining acceptance of its identity ... A good example is Ukrainian itself ... It was not recognized by ... the 19th century ('great') Russian establishment ... leading to a continued perception ... that Ukrainian was a 'dialect' of Russian ... Such treatment invariably led later Ukrainian scholars ... to refer to the language of those [earliest] features as not only 'old' Ukrainian but 'proto'-Ukrainian ... The desire to see the beginnings of Rusyn as existing before, say, the 18th century is entirely natural - it was clearly in evidence in that century, so the beginnings must have been earlier. In fact, it is possible to see linguistic traces of what we recognize as 'Rusyn' in documents in very early texts - but this is not to say that these texts were written in 'Old Rusyn'. It is safe to say that Rusyn begins to be quite recognizable in a more systematic fashion (in terms of modern Rusyn) by the 18th century. Of course, given the political and social histories of the region, and especially religious history, documents differ according to the region, time, and the (socio-)linguistic milieu in which they were composed - e.g., Church Slavonic, Russian, Latin, etc.

S. M. Pugh, The Rusyn Language, 2009[32]

The Niagovo Postilla (Njagovskie poučenija), dated to 1758, is one of the earliest texts possessing significant phonetic and morphological characteristics of modern Rusyn (specifically the Subcarpathian variant) and is potentially "linguistically traceable" to the 16th century.[33][34]

By the 18th century, the Rusyn language was "clearly in evidence" and "quite recognizable in a more systematic fashion".[35]

The first books produced exclusively for Rusyn readership were printed under the direction of bishop of Mukachevo, Joseph Decamillis (r. 1690 - 1706). Under his direction, the printshop at the University of Trnava published a catechism (Katekhisis dlia naouki Ouhorouskim liudem, 1698) and an elementary language primer (Boukvar’ iazyka slaven’ska, 1699). For decades, these would be the only textbooks available to Rusyn students.[36]

Later, in 1767 Maria Theresa's Urbarium was published throughout the Habsburg Empire in a variety of languages, including Rusyn.[37][38]

Finally, under Bishop Andriy Bachynskyi's tenure (r. 1773 - 1809) in the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo, new texts for Rusyn student readership were published. These several editions of Ioann Kutka's primer and catechism were published in Rusyn vernacular, though with heavy influence from Church Slavonic. [39]

19th century

By the 19th century, "attempts to write in a form of Russo-Church Slavonic with a Rusyn flavor, or a type of 'Subcarpathian Russian' with Rusyn phonetic features," began to be made. Notably, Myxajlo Lučkaj's grammar of the Subcarpathian variety of Church Slavonic, Grammatica Slavo-Ruthena, of 1830 had a "distinctly Rusyn flavor". And while Lučkaj did not support use of vernacular as a literary language (commenting on the proper usage of either lingua eruditorum et Communis plebis, 'the languages of the learned and the languages of the common people' in his Praefatio), he did include examples of "Rusyn paradigms" in his work to attempt demonstrate its similarity to Church Slavonic. Lučkaj in effect sought to prove the two languages were close sisters of a common ancestor. [33][40]

In 1847, Greek Catholic priest Alexander Dukhnovych published the first textbook written almost fully in common Rusyn vernacular, Knyzhytsia chytalnaia dlia nachynaiushchykh (A Reader for Beginners).[41] Further editions of the primer followed in 1850 and 1852, as well as the establishment of "the first Carpatho-Rusyn cultural organization", the Prešov Literary Society, in 1850. Over the next four years of its existence, the Society would go on to publish a further 12 works, including Dukhnovych's Virtue is More Important than Riches (the very first play written in Carpatho-Rusyn), as well Carpatho-Rusyn's first literary anthologies in 1850, 1851, and 1852, titled Greetings to the Rusyns.[42]

Classification

The classification of the Rusyn language has historically been both linguistically and politically controversial. During the 19th century, several questions were raised among linguists, regarding the classification of East Slavic dialects that were spoken in the northeastern (Carpathian) regions of the Kingdom of Hungary, and also in neighbouring regions of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. From those questions, three main theories emerged:[43]

  • Some linguists claimed that East Slavic dialects of the Carpathian region should be classified as specific varieties of the Russian language.
  • Other linguists argued that those dialects should be classified as western varieties of a distinctive Ukrainian language.
  • A third group claimed that those dialects are specific enough to be recognized as a distinctive East Slavic language.

In spite of these linguistic disputes, official terminology used by the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy that ruled the Carpathian region remained unchanged. For Austro-Hungarian state authorities, the entire East Slavic linguistic body within the borders of the Monarchy was classified as Ruthenian language (German: ruthenische Sprache, Hungarian: Rutén nyelv), an archaic and exonymic term that remained in use until 1918.[44]

20th century

After the dissolution of Austria-Hungary (1918), the newly proclaimed Hungarian Republic recognized Rusyn regional autonomy in Subcarpathian regions and created, at the beginning of 1919, a department for Rusyn language and literature at the Budapest University.[45]

By the end of 1919, the region of Subcarpathian Ruthenia was appended to the newly formed Czechoslovak state, as its easternmost province. During the next twenty years, linguistic debates were continued between the same three options (pro-Russian, pro-Ukrainian, and local Rusyn), with Czechoslovak state authorities occasionally acting as arbiters.[46]

In March 1939, the region proclaimed independence under the name Carpatho-Ukraine, but it was immediately occupied and annexed by Hungary. The region was later occupied (1944) and annexed (1945) by the Soviet Union, and incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR,[47] which proceeded with implementation of Ukrainian linguistic standards. In Soviet Ukraine, Rusyns were not recognized as a distinctive ethnicity, and their language was considered a dialect of Ukrainian language. Poland employed similar policies,[48] using internal deportations to move many Eastern Slavs from southeastern to newly acquired western regions (Operation Vistula),[49] and switch their language to Polish, and Ukrainian at school.

During that period, the only country that was officially recognizing the Rusyn minority and its language was Yugoslavia.[50]

Post-Soviet Developments
Official usage of Pannonian Rusyn in Vojvodina, Serbia.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, modern standards of minority rights were gradually applied throughout the Eastern Europe, thus affecting the attitude of several states towards the Rusyn language. As successors of Yugoslavia, Serbia and Croatia continued to recognize the Rusyn language as an official minority language.[51]

Scholars with the former Institute of Slavic and Balkan Studies in Moscow (now the Institute of Slavonic Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences) formally acknowledged Rusyn as a separate language in 1992, and trained specialists to study the language.[52] These studies were financially supported by the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Since 1995, Rusyn has been recognized as a minority language in Slovakia, enjoying the status of an official language in municipalities where more than 20 percent of the inhabitants speak Rusyn.[53]

Contemporary status

Ukrainian state authorities do not recognize Rusyns as a separate ethnicity, regardless of Rusyn self-identification. Ukraine officially considered Rusyn a dialect of Ukrainian. In 2012, Ukraine adopted a new law, recognizing Rusyn as one of several minority and regional languages, but that law was revoked in 2014.[54]

Rusyn is recognized as an officially protected, minority language by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2011), Croatia (1997), Hungary (1998), Romania (2008), Poland (as Lemko, 2009), Serbia (2006), and Slovakia (2002).[11]

It is not possible to estimate accurately the number of fluent speakers of Rusyn; however, their number is estimated to be in the tens of thousands.

ISO 639-9 Identifiers

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has assigned the ISO 639-3 code 'rue' for Carpathian Rusyn.[55]

On January 20th, 2020, the ISO 639-3 identifier, rsk, and language names, Rusyn and Ruthenian, were approved for Pannonian Rusyn by ISO. The change followed a November 2020 request by a group of linguists (including Aleksandr Dulichenko) in which ISO was asked to recognize Pannonian Rusyn as distinct and separate from Carpathian Rusyn and to issue it the new ISO 639-3 identifier, Ruthenian language (with the additional name, Rusnak).[56][57]

This ISO update is the latest development since a 2019 proposal from a smaller group of those same linguists which similarly requested suppression of the code, rue, and division of Rusyn language into two distinct languages: the East Rusyn language (Carpathian Rusyn) and the South Rusyn language (Pannonian Rusyn). However, in January 2020, ISO authorities rejected the request.[58]

As explained earlier, term Ruthenian language already has a specific and well-established meaning. However, the additional term, Rusnak, also has a wider connotation as it is a traditional endonym for all Rusyns (whether in Pannonia or Carpathian Rus').[17][59] The effects of the adoption of these terms for Pannonian Rusyn by ISO (if any) remain to be seen.

Varieties

Carpathian Rusyn varieties

The main continuum of Rusyn varieties stretches from Transcarpathia and follows the Carpathian Mountains westward into South-Eastern Poland and Eastern Slovakia, forming an area referred to as Carpathian Rus'. As with any language, all three major varieties of Rusyn vary with respect to phonology, morphology, and syntax, and have various features unique to themselves, while of course also containing their own, more local sub-varieties. The continuum of Rusyn is agreed to include the varieties known historically as Lemko and Bojko, and is also generally accepted to end at or with the Hucul variety, which is "not included in the Rusyn continuum per se, but represent[s] a linguistic variant .. better seen as a dialect of Ukrainian". As the westernmost member of the family of East Slavic languages, it has also acquired a number of West Slavic features—unique to East Slavic languages—due to prolonged contact with the coterritorial languages of Polish and Slovak.[60]

Literary languages

Today, there are three formally codified Rusyn literary varieties and one de facto (Subcarpathian Rusyn). These varieties reflect the culmination of nearly two centuries of activist and academic labor, during which a literary Rusyn language was desired, discussed, and addressed (time and again) by a dedicated intelligentsia. Linguist Stefan M. Pugh notes, "...at every stage someone was thinking of writing in Rusyn; approximately every generation a grammar of some sort would be written but not find wide acceptance, primarily for reasons of a political nature (and of course logistical practicalities)."[61]

Some of these earlier grammars include those by Dmytrij Vyslockij[lower-alpha 1] (Karpatorusskij bukvar'[lower-alpha 2]),[62] Vanja Hunjanky (1931), Metodyj Trochanovskij (Bukvar: Perša knyžečka dlja narodnıx škol;[lower-alpha 3] 1935),[63][64] and Ivan Harajda (1941).[23] Harajda's grammar is particularly notable for having arrived in the midst of a five-year linguistic furvor for Carpatho-Rusyn. From 1939 through 1944 an estimated 1,500 to 3,000 Rusyn-language publications (mostly centered around Uzhhorod, Ukraine) entered print and from 1941 onward, Harajda's grammar was the accepted standard.

  1. Rusyn: Дмитрий Вислоцкий
  2. Rusyn: Карпаторусский букварь
  3. Rusyn: Буквар. Перша книжечка для народных школ.

Prešov Rusyn

In Slovakia, the Prešov literary variety has been under continuous codification since 1995[65] when first published by Vasyl Jabur, Anna Plíšková and Kvetoslava Koporová. Its namesakes are both the city and region of Prešov, Slovakia—historically, each have been respective centers for Rusyn academia and the Rusyn population of Slovakia.

Prešov Rusyn was based on varieties of Rusyn found in a relatively compact area within the Prešov Region. Specifically, the variety is based on the language spoken in the area between the West Zemplin and East Zemplin Rusyn dialects (even more specifically: a line along the towns and villages of Osadne, Hostovice, Parihuzovce, Čukalovce, Pcoline, Pichne, Nechvalova Polianka, Zubne, Nizna Jablonka, Vysna Jablonka, Svetlice, and Zbojne). And though the many Rusyn dialects of Slovakia entirely surpass the limited set of features prescribed in the standard, this comparatively small sample size was consciously chosen by codifiers in order to provide a structured ecosystem within which a variety of written and spoken language would inevitably (and already did) thrive.[18]

Its orthography is largely based on Zhelekhivka, a late 19th century variety of the Ukrainian alphabet.

Lemko-Rusyn

In Poland, a standard Lemko-Rusyn grammar and dictionary were published in 2000 by Mirosława Chomiak and Henryk Fontański, with a second edition issued in 2004.[66][67]

Subcarpathian Rusyn

In Transcarpathia, Ukraine, M. Alamašij's and Igor Kerča's Materyns'kyj jazyk - pysemnycja rusyns'koho jazyka, serves as the de facto literary standard for Subcarpathian, though "unofficial". Published in 1999, with a second edition in 2004, and a 58,000 word Rusyn-Russian dictionary in 2007, Kerča's work has been used by prominent Rusyn publishers in Uzhorod—albeit with variations between published works that are typical of the spoken language.[68][69]

Common usage

Despite the above codified varieties, many Carpatho-Rusyn publications will use a combination of the three Carpathian standards (most notably in Hungary and in Transcarpathia). There have even attempts to revitalize the pre-war etymological orthography with archaic Cyrillic orthography (i.e. usage of the letter ѣ, or yat'); the latter can be observed throughout Rusyn Wikipedia, where even a single article may be written in several different codified varieties. And while somewhat archaic, used of Harajda's grammar is even promoted by some in Rusyn Wikipedia (although parts of the articles are written using other standards).

Pannonian Rusyn

Pannonian Rusyn, has variously been referred to as an incredible distinct dialect of Carpathian Rusyn or a separate language altogether. In the ISO 639-9 identifier application for Pannonian Rusyn (or "Ruthenian" as it is referred to in that document), the authors note that "Ruthenian is closest to [a] linguistic entity sometimes called [ Slovak: východoslovenský, Pan. Rusyn: виходнярски, lit. 'East Slovak' ],[lower-roman 1] ... (the speeches of Trebišov and Prešov [districts])."[70]

Literary language

The literary variety of Serbian and Croatian Rusyns is, again, significantly different from the above three Carpathian varieties in both vocabulary and grammar. It was first standardized in 1923 by G. Kostelnik. The modern standard has been continuously developed since the 1980s by Julian Ramač, Helena Međeši and Mihajlo Fejsa of Serbia, and Mihály Káprály of Hungary.

Phonology

Consonants
Labial Dental/
Alveolar		 Post-
alveolar		 Velar Glottal
hard soft hard soft
Nasal m n nʲ
Stop voiceless p t tʲ k
voiced b d dʲ ɡ
Affricate voiceless t͡s t͡sʲ t͡ʃ
voiced d͡z d͡zʲ d͡ʒ
Fricative voiceless f s sʲ ʃ (ʃʲ) x h
voiced v z zʲ ʒ (ʒʲ)
Rhotic r rʲ
Approximant lateral l lʲ
central (w)[lower-alpha 1] j
  1. The [w] sound only exists within alteration of [v]. However, in the Lemko variety, the [w] sound also represents the non-palatalized L, as is the case with the Polish ł.

A soft consonant combination sound [ʃʲt͡ʃʲ] exists more among the northern and western dialects. In the eastern dialects the sound is recognized as [ʃʲʃʲ], including the area on which the standard dialect is based. It is noted that a combination sound like this one, could have evolved into a soft fricative sound [ʃʲ].[71]

Vowels
Front Central Back
Close i u
ɪ ɤ
Mid ɛ o
Open a
  • /ɪ/ and /ɤ/ tend to be more towards centralized as [ɪ̈], [ɤ̈].[72]

Grammar

Noun declension

Declension in Rusyn is based on grammatical number, gender, and case. Like English, only two types of grammatical number are expressed: singular and plural. And like other Slavic languages, Rusyn has three grammatical genders: feminine, masculine, and neuter. Furthermore, like those languages, Rusyn uses a seven-case system of nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, locative, instrumental, and vocative cases.[73]

One final point of note is that the masculine gender (and only the masculine gender) is further subdivided into animate and inanimate types. While there are no suffixes specific to animacy, declension between the two differs in that for animates, the form of the accusative case copies that of the genitive case.[73]

Grammatical cases

As mentioned in the preceding section, Rusyn cases are similar to those of other Slavic languages. A very general summary of usage is given in the table below, though proper usage depends on a particular situation, prepositions, and verbs used, as well as other extenuating circumstances.[73]

Cases in Rusyn
Full name (Rusyn) Case General Usage
номінатів nominative Subjects
акузатів accusative Direct objects
ґенітів genitive Possession or belonging ("of" or

"'s")

датів dative Indirect objects ("to" or "for")
локал locative Concerning location. Only used with prepositions such as "in", "on", etc.
інштрументал instrumental Concerning "means by which".
вокатів vocative Used to address another.

Nouns will generally decline differently to indicate each case (e.g. English they/them/their/theirs). Based on how they decline, nouns can be grouped into one of four "types".

  • Type I: feminine nouns ending in -а/-я in the nominative singular
  • Type II:
    • masculine nouns ending in a consonant in the nominative singular
    • neuter and masculine nouns ending in a consonant or -o in the nominative singular
    • neuters ending in -e or -а/-я in the nominative singular
  • Type III:
    • feminine nouns ending in a paired consonant (-cons.+ь),[lower-roman 2] an unpaired palato-alveolar consonant (-ш, -ч, щ, -ж, or -дж),[lower-roman 3] or -ов in the nominative singular
    • the feminine noun мати, maty, 'mother'
  • Type IV: neuter nouns ending in -а/-я in the nominative singular

Declension type I: feminines ending in -а/-я

This type consists of grammatically feminine nouns ending in -а (hard) or -я (soft) in the nominative case. The table below includes four examples of such nouns. The first two represent the archetypal feminine paradigm, while the second two represent a "common" or "two-fold gender" paradigm.

It is important to note that this second paradigm has atypical dative, locative, and instrumental singular suffixes which are actually representative of the male/neuter declension paradigm (visible later in this article). According to Pugh, this peculiarity developed as a result of the societal roles of "judge" and "elder" being traditionally patriarchal. This phenomenon is in contrast to grammatically feminine nouns of ambiguous gender where a particular role was not historically male-oriented, such as сирота, orphan. In these cases, the typical feminine paradigm is maintained.[74]

Feminine Nouns Ending in -а/-я in the Nominative Singular[74]
Archetypal Feminine Common/Two-Fold Gender
HardSoftHardSoft
Sg. Nominative школаземлястаростасудця
Accusative школу землюстаростусудцю
Genitive школыземлїстаростысудцї
Dative школїземлїстаростовисудцёви
Locative школїземлистаростовисудцёви
Instrumental школов [lower-alpha 1]землёв [lower-alpha 1]старостов
старостом		судцём
Vocative школоземлёстаростосудцё
Pl. Nominative школыземлїстаростове
старосты		судцёве
судцї
Accusative школыземлїстаростівсудцїв
Genitive школземльстарост
старостів		судцїв
Dative школамземлямстаростам
старостім		судцям
судцїм
Locative школамземляхстаростах
старостох		судцях
Instrumental школамиземлямистаростамисудцями
English schoolearthelderjudge
  1. -ов is pronounced as in English owe.

Declension type II: masculines and neuters

This declension type encompasses a very large set of vocabulary as it contains nouns of both masculine and neuter genders, hard and soft stems, as well as animate and inanimate beings (for the masculine gender).[75]

Masculines ending in consonants

This declension contains a large amount of identical forms (syncretism) between cases. Depending on the noun, the number of distinct forms may number from as few as 3 to as many as 6. For singular animate nouns, there is a single form for the accusative and genitive cases, as well as a single form for the dative and locative cases. Similarly, singular inanimate nouns share a form for nominative and locative cases.[76]

Masculine Nouns Ending in a Consonant in the Nominative Singular[76]
Animate Inanimate
Hard Soft Hard Soft
Sg. Nominative сын учітель стіл край
Accusative сына учітеля
Genitive [lower-alpha 1][76] стола краю
Dative сынови учітелёви столу краю
Locative столї краю
Instrumental сыном учітелём стілом краём
Vocative сыну учітелю столе краю
Pl. Nominative сынове учітелї столы краї
Accusative сынів учітелїв столы краї
Genitive сынів учітелїв столів країв
Dative сынам
сынім		 учітелям
учітелїм		 столам
столім		 краям
країм
Locative сынох
сынах		 учітелях
учітелёх		 столох
столах		 краях
краёх
Instrumental сынами учітелями столами краями
English son teacher table area, region
  1. For this declension, nouns may decline with either -u or -a. Use of one or the other depends on whether the concept or object is (very generally) abstract or tangible in nature. For instance, Pugh provides the following examples for the former: "anger, pain, reason, sugar, tea"; and the following for the latter: "table, nose, knife, et al."
Neuters or masculines ending in -o, neuters ending in -e or -а/-я

The following table demonstrates the declension paradigm for nouns with hard stems which end in -o in the nominative case. Though there are some masculine nouns in this category, these nouns are predominantly neuter.

Neuter or Masculine Nouns (with Hard Stems) Ending in -o in the Nominative Singular[77]
Masculine Neuter
Inanimate Animate
Sg. Nominative домиско дїдо село
Accusative домиско дїда[lower-alpha 1] село
Genitive домиска дїда села
Dative домиску дїдови селу
Locative[lower-alpha 2] домиску дїдови селї
Instrumental домиском дїдом селом
Vocative домиско дїду село
Pl. Nominative домиска дїдове села
Accusative домиска дїдів села
Genitive домиск дїдів сел
Dative домискам дїдам селам
Locative домисках/

домискох

 дїдах/

дїдох

 селах
Instrumental домисками дїдами селами
English large house, building grandfather village
  1. This follows the typical masculine animate paradigm where the genitive takes the place of the accusative.
  2. For the locative case, there are three possible suffixes: -ovy for animates, -i for inanimates (either masculine or neuter), and -u for stems ending in velar or soft consonants.
Neuter Nouns (with Soft Stems) Ending in -e and -а/-я in the Nominative Singular[78]
Soft in Nominative Hard in Nominative [lower-alpha 1]
Sg. Nominative условієзначіня[lower-alpha 2]полесердце
Accusative условієзначіняполесердце
Genitive условіязначіняполясердця
Dative условіюзначінюполюсердцю
Locative условію
условії		значіню
значінї		полю
полї		сердцю
сердцї
Instrumental условіёмзначінёмполёмсердцём
Pl. Nominative условіязначіняполясердця
Accusative условіязначіняполясердця
Genitive условійзначіньпольсердець
сердць
Dative условіямзначінямполямсердцям
Locative условіяхзначіняхполяхсердцях
Instrumental условіямизначінямиполямисердцями
English condition meaning field heart
  1. Over time, soft consonants before -e have hardened in Rusyn.
  2. This suffix changed over time from -e to -a.

Declension type III: other feminines

All nouns in this type are feminine. The paradigm can be identified by the following suffixes in the nominative singular case: a paired consonant (-cons.+ь),[lower-roman 2] an unpaired palato-alveolar consonant (-ш, -ч, щ, -ж, or -дж),[lower-roman 3] or the suffix -ов. Additionally, the noun мати, maty, 'mother' is also part of this type.

Feminine Nouns Ending in a Consonant and 'Mati'[80]
Paired Cons.Palato-Alveolar Cons.-овмати
Sg. Nominative тїньнічмышцерковмати/ матїрь
Accusative тїньнічмышцерковматїрь
Genitive тїниночімышыцерквиматери
Dative тїниночімышіцерквиматери
Locative тїниночімышіцерквиматери
Instrumental [lower-alpha 1] тїнёвночовмышовцерковлёвматїрёв
Pl. Nominative тїниночімышыцерквиматери
Accusative тїниночімышыцерквиматери
Genitive тїнейночеймышейцерквейматерей
Dative тїнямночаммышамцерквамматерям
Locative тїняхночахмышахцерквахматерях
Instrumental тїняминочамимышамицерквамиматерями
English shadownightmousechurchmother
  1. The declension for all feminine nouns in the instrumental case is the same (-ов) across all declension types.

Declension type IV: neuters ending in -а/-я

This declension paradigm is used very rarely. It entirely consists of grammatically neuter nouns. This paradigm can be identified by the -a suffix in the nominative and accusative cases, as well as the appearance of the affix -t- between the stem and suffix in other cases. There is no variation in this paradigm: all nouns decline in an identical manner.[81]

Type IV is predominantly made up of words referring to the young of animals and humans. However, this should not be taken as a hard rule as some nouns which historically declined differently (e.g. вымя, vŷmja, 'udder' and горня, hornja, 'cup, mug'), now decline according to this paradigm instead.[81]

Neuter Nouns Ending in -a and -я[82]
Sg. Nominative гусягачавымя/ вымня
Accusative гусягачавымя/ вымня
Genitive гусятигачативымяти/ вымняти
Dative гусятигачативымяти/ вымняти
Locative гусятигачативымяти/ вымняти
Instrumental гусятёмгачатёмвымятём/ вымнятём
Pl. Nominative гусятагачатавымята/ вымнята
Accusative гусятагачатавымята/ вымнята
Genitive гусятагачатавымята/ вымнята
Dative гусятамгачатамвымятам/ вымнятам
Locative гусятахгачатахвмятах/ вмнятах
Instrumental гусятамигачатамивымятами/ вымнятами
English goslingcolt, foaludder

    Verbal conjugation

    Verbs may be divided into two major conjugation types, which may be identified based on the "stem-marker" that appears during conjugation. Unfortunately, the infinitive verb forms are often ambiguous and as such, there is no general system that allows an infinitive to be identified as either Type I or Type II. Some infinitive suffixes, however, are unique to at least Type I, i.e. -ути, -овати, -нути, etc. In the following sections, the stem-markers are given in Latin as Cyrillic often obscures the markers in the conjugated forms.[83]

    Conjugation type I

    Type I may be divided into several sub-types, the most notable of which are the vowel+j stem-markers: -uj-, -ij-, -yj-, etc. It is important to remember that in the infinitive and some conjugations that the consonant, -j-, is truncated when followed by another consonant, e.g. -aj-ty → -a-ty.[84]

    UJ stem markers

    The -uj- set of verbs can be divided into two groups based the presence of the suffixal markers -ova- or -uj- in the infinitive. The former group representing the overwhelming majority of verbs in this type.[85]

    Conjugation of Verbs with -UJ- Stem Marker[86]
    -OVA- -UTY
    HardSoftHard
    Infinitive бісїдова́тионо́влёватичути
    Sg. 1st Person (I) бісїду́юоно́влюючу́ю
    2nd Person (you) бісїду́єшоно́влюєшчу́єш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) бісїду́єоно́влюєчу́є
    Pl. 1st Person (we) бісїду́ємеоно́влюємечу́єме
    2nd Person (you all) бісїду́єтеоно́влюєтечу́єте
    3rd Person (they) бісїду́ютьоно́влюютьчу́ють
    English to speak to renew to hear
    IJ stem markers
    Conjugation of Verbs with -IJ- Stem Marker[87]
    Infinitive зеленї́тимолодїти
    Sg. 1st Person (I) зеленї́юмолодїю
    2nd Person (you) зеленї́єшмолодїєш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) зеленї́ємолодїє
    Pl. 1st Person (we) зеленї́ємемолодїєме
    2nd Person (you all) зеленї́єтемолодїєте
    3rd Person (they) зеленї́ютьмолодїють
    English to turn green to grow young
    YJ stem markers
    Conjugation of Verbs with -YJ- Stem Marker[88]
    Infinitive ви́типи́ти
    Sg. 1st Person (I) ви́юпи́ю, пю
    2nd Person (you) ви́єшпи́єш, пєш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) ви́єпи́є, пє
    Pl. 1st Person (we) ви́ємепи́єме, пємє́
    2nd Person (you all) виєтепи́єте, пєтє́
    3rd Person (they) виютьпи́ють, пють
    English to wind to drink
    ЫJ stem markers
    Conjugation of Verbs with -ЫJ- Stem Marker[89]
    Infinitive кры́тишы́ти
    Sg. 1st Person (I) кры́юшы́ю
    2nd Person (you) кры́єшшы́єш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) кры́єшы́є
    Pl. 1st Person (we) кры́ємешы́єме
    2nd Person (you all) кры́єтешы́єте
    3rd Person (they) кры́ютьшы́ють
    English to cover to sew
    A(J) stem markers
    Conjugation of Verbs with -A(J)- Stem Marker[90]
    -ATY -ЫVA-
    Infinitive чі́та́тима́тиодкрыва́ти
    Sg. 1st Person (I) чі́таммамодкры́вам
    2nd Person (you) чі́ташмашодкры́ваш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) чі́татьматьодкры́вать
    Pl. 1st Person (we) чіта́мема́меодкрыва́ме
    2nd Person (you all) чіта́тема́теодкрыва́те
    3rd Person (they) чіта́ютьма́ютьодкрыва́ють
    English to read to have to discover
    AVA stem markers
    Conjugation of Verbs with -AVA- Stem Marker[91]
    -AVA--AJ--AVA--AJ-
    Infinitive дава́тиузнава́ти
    Sg. 1st Person (I) да́вамдаю́узна́вамузнаю
    2nd Person (you) давашдаєшузнавашузнаєш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) даватьдаєузнаватьузнає
    Pl. 1st Person (we) давамедамеузнавамеузнаме
    2nd Person (you all) даватедатеузнаватеузнате
    3rd Person (they) даваютьдаютьузнаваютьузнають
    English to give
    A stem markers
    Conjugation of Verbs with -A- Stem Marker[92]
    Infinitive писа́тиуказа́тискака́типосла́тинасы́пати
    Sg. 1st Person (I) пи́шуука́жуска́чупо́шлюнасы́плю
    2nd Person (you) пи́шешука́жешска́чешпо́шлешнасы́плеш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) пи́шеука́жеска́чепо́шленасы́пле
    Pl. 1st Person (we) пи́шемеука́жемеска́чемепо́шлеменасы́племе
    2nd Person (you all) пи́шетеука́жетеска́четепо́шлетенасы́плете
    3rd Person (they) пи́шутьука́жутьска́чутьпо́шлютьнасы́плють
    English to write to show to hop or jump to send to strew
    NU stem markers
    Conjugation of Verbs with -NU- Stem Marker[93]
    Infinitive верну́типривы́кнути
    Sg. 1st Person (I) ве́рнупривы́кну
    2nd Person (you) ве́рнешпривы́кнеш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) ве́рнепривы́кне
    Pl. 1st Person (we) ве́рнемепривы́кнеме
    2nd Person (you all) ве́рнетепривы́кнете
    3rd Person (they) ве́рнутьпривы́кнуть
    English to returnto become accustomed to
    Non-syllabic stem markers
    Conjugation of Verbs with Non-Syllabic Stem Markers[94]
    CCV-ty > CVC-CCV-ty > CVCC-CV-ty > CC-CVC-ty > CC-CCV-ty > CC-
    Infinitive бра́тивзяти́жа́тизачати́вы́нятиде́ртирва́ти
    Sg. 1st Person (I) беру́во́зьмужнуза́чнувы́ймудрурву
    2nd Person (you) бере́шво́зьмешжнешза́чнешвы́ймешдрешрвеш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) бере́во́зьмежнеза́чневы́ймедрерве
    Pl. 1st Person (we) бере́мево́зьмемжнеме́за́чнемевы́ймемедреме́рвеме́
    2nd Person (you all) бере́тево́зьметежнете́за́чнетевы́йметедрете́рвете́
    3rd Person (they) беру́тьво́зьмутьжнутьза́чнутьвы́ймутьдрутьрвуть
    English to taketo taketo reapto beginto draw or pull outto thrash or whipto tear
    Consonant stems
    Conjugation of Verbs With Stems Ending in Consonants[95]
    Infinitive не́стиве́ститечі́мочі́іти́лячі́
    Sg. 1st Person (I) не́суве́дутечу́мо́жуіду́ля́жу
    2nd Person (you) не́сешве́дештече́шмо́жешіде́шля́жеш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) не́севе́детече́мо́жеіде́ля́же
    Pl. 1st Person (we) не́семеве́деметечеме́мо́жемеідеме́ля́жеме
    2nd Person (you all) не́сетеве́дететечете́мо́жетеідете́ля́жете
    3rd Person (they) не́сутьве́дутьтечу́тьмо́жутьіду́тьля́жуть
    English to carryto leadto flowto be ableto goto lie down
    Y-type I
    Conjugation of Y(1) Type Verbs[96]
    Infinitive говори́типили́тиглушы́ти
    Sg. 1st Person (I) гово́рюпи́люглу́шу
    2nd Person (you) гово́ришпи́лишглу́шыш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) гово́ритьпи́литьглу́шыть
    Pl. 1st Person (we) гово́римепилиме́глу́шыме
    2nd Person (you all) гово́ритепилите́глу́шыте
    3rd Person (they) гово́рятьпиля́тьглу́шать
    English to say or speakto saw (wood)to muffle, stifle or make quiet
    Y-type II
    Conjugation of Y(2) Type Verbs[97]
    Infinitive вози́тигаси́тигати́типусти́тиходи́ти
    Sg. 1st Person (I) во́жуга́шуга́чупу́щухо́джу
    2nd Person (you) во́зишга́сишга́тишпу́стишхо́диш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) во́зитьга́ситьга́титьпу́ститьхо́дить
    Pl. 1st Person (we) во́зимега́симега́тимепу́стимехо́диме
    2nd Person (you all) во́зитега́ситега́титепу́ститехо́дите
    3rd Person (they) во́зятьга́тятьга́тятьпу́стятьхо́дять
    English to take by vehicleto put out or extinguishto erect a dam or barrierto admit or allow into go or walk
    I-type
    Conjugation of І-Type Verbs[98]
    Infinitive трубі́тишелесті́тивертї́тилетї́тисвистї́ти
    Sg. 1st Person (I) трублю́шелещу́верчулечу́сви́щу
    2nd Person (you) труби́шшелести́швертишлети́шсви́стиш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) труби́тьшелести́тьвертитьлети́тьсви́стить
    Pl. 1st Person (we)8 трубиме́шелестиме́вертимелетиме́свистиме́
    2nd Person (you all) трубите́шелестите́вертителетите́свистите́
    3rd Person (they) трубля́тьшелестя́тьвертятьлетя́тьсвистя́ть
    English to trumpetto rustleto drill or turnto flyto whistle
    Palato-Alveolar Stems
    Conjugation of 'Palato-Alveolar'-А Verbs[99]
    Infinitive бурча́тивереща́тилежа́тикрича́тибоя́ти сястоя́ти
    Sg. 1st Person (I) бурчу́вере́щулежу́кричу́бою́ сястою́
    2nd Person (you) бурчі́швере́щішлежы́шкричі́шбої́ш сястої́ш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) бурчі́тьвере́щітьлежы́тькричі́тьбої́ть сястої́ть
    Pl. 1st Person (we) бурчі́мевере́щімележыме́кричіме́боїме́ сястої́ме
    2nd Person (you all) бурчі́тевере́щітележыте́кричіте́боїте́ сястої́те
    3rd Person (they) бурча́тьвере́щатьлежа́тькрича́тьбоя́ть сястоя́ть
    English to mutterto screech or squealto lie on somethingto screamto fear to stand

    Irregular Verbs
    Conjugation of Y(2) Type Verbs[100]
    Infinitive ї́стидати́бы́типові́сти
    Sg. 1st Person (I) їмдамємпові́м
    2nd Person (you) їшдашєсьпові́ш
    3rd Person (he, she, it) їстьдастьєпові́сть
    Pl. 1st Person (we) їме́даме́сьмеповіме́
    2nd Person (you all) їсте́дате́, дасте́сьтеповісте́
    3rd Person (they) їдя́тьдаду́тьсутьповідя́ть
    English to eatto giveto beto tell

    Alphabet

    Each of the Rusyn standard varieties has its own Cyrillic alphabet. The table below shows the Rusyn alphabet of the Prešov Standard, with notes on other varieties. The alphabets of the other Carpathian Rusyn varieties, Lemko Rusyn and Subcarpathian Rusyn, differ from the Prešov Standard in lacking ё and ї. For the Pannonian Rusyn alphabet, see Pannonian Rusyn language § Alphabet.

    Romanization (transliteration) is given according to ALA-LC,[101] BGN/PCGN,[102] generic European, ISO/R9 1968 (IDS),[103] and ISO 9.

    CapitalSmallNameRomanizationPronunciation
    ALABGNEuroIDSISO
    Ааa aaaaa/a/ (listen)
    Бббы bbbbb/b/ (listen)
    Вввы vvvvv/v/ (listen)
    Гггы hhhhh/ɦ/ (listen)
    Ґґґы ggggg/ɡ/ (listen)
    Ддды ddddd/d/ (listen)
    Ееe eeeee/ɛ/ (listen)
    Єєє i͡ejeje/'ejeê/je, ʲe/
    Ё [a][b]ёё ëjojo/'oë/jo, ʲo/
    Жжжы z͡hžžžž/ʒ/ (listen)
    Зззы zzzzz/z/ (listen)
    І [b]іi iiiiì/i/ (listen)
    Ї [a]її ïjiji/'iïï/ji, ʲi/
    И [c]ии i/yyîii/ɪ/ (listen)
    Ы [b]ыы ŷyyy/ŷy/ɨ/ (listen)
    Йййы ĭjjjj/j/ (listen)
    Кккы kkkkk/k/ (listen)
    Лллы lllll/l/ (listen)
    Мммы mmmmm/m/ (listen)
    Ннны nnnnn/n/ (listen)
    Ооo ooooo/ɔ/ (listen)
    Пппы ppppp/p/ (listen)
    Ррры rrrrr/r/ (listen)
    Сссы sssss/s/ (listen)
    Ттты ttttt/t/ (listen)
    Ууу uuuuu/u/ (listen)
    Фффы fffff/f/ (listen)
    Хххы k͡hchchchh/x/ (listen)
    Цццы t͡scccc/t͡s/ (listen)
    Чччы chčččč/t͡ʃ/ (listen)
    Шшшы s͡hšššš/ʃ/ (listen)
    Щщщы shchščščščŝ/ʃt͡ʃ/
    Ююю і͡ujuju/'ujuû/ju, ʲu/
    Яяя i͡ajaja/'ajaâ/ja, ʲa/
    Ь [d]ьмнягкый знак
    (English: soft sign)
    or ірь     		′’'′′/ʲ/
    Ъ [b][e]ътвердый знак (ір) ″’"–″

    Usage notes
    1. 1 2 Not used in Lemko.
    2. 1 2 3 4 Not used in Pannonian Rusyn.
    3. 1 The Pannonian Rusyn alphabet places this letter directly after з, like the Ukrainian alphabet. According to ALA–LC romanization, it is romanized i for Pannonian Rusyn and y otherwise.
    4. 1 "Soft Sign": marks the preceding consonant as palatalized (soft)
    5. 1 "Hard Sign": marks the preceding consonant as NOT palatalized (hard).
    6. In Ukraine, usage is found of the letters о̄ and ӯ.[105][106][107]
    7. Until World War II, the letter ѣ (їть or yat') was used, and was pronounced /ji, ʲi/ or /i/ (listen). This letter is still used in part of the articles in the Rusyn Wikipedia.

    Number of letters and relationship to the Ukrainian alphabet

    The Prešov Rusyn alphabet of Slovakia has 36 letters. It includes all the letters of the Ukrainian alphabet plus ё, ы, and ъ.

    The Lemko Rusyn alphabet of Poland has 34 letters. It includes all the Ukrainian letters with the exception of ї, plus ы and ъ.

    The Pannonian Rusyn alphabet has 32 letters, namely all the Ukrainian letters except і.

    Alphabetical order

    The Rusyn alphabets all place ь after я, as the Ukrainian alphabet did until 1990. The vast majority of Cyrillic alphabets place ь before э (if present), ю, and я.

    The Lemko and Prešov Rusyn alphabets place ъ at the very end, while the vast majority of Cyrillic alphabets place it after щ. They also place ы before й, while the vast majority of Cyrillic alphabets place it after ш, щ (if present), and ъ (if present).

    In the Prešov Rusyn alphabet, і and ї come before и, and likewise, і comes before и in the Lemko Rusyn alphabet (which doesn't have ї). In the Ukrainian alphabet, however, и precedes і and ї, and the Pannonian Rusyn alphabet (which doesn't have і) follows this precedent by placing и before ї.

    Newspapers
    • Amerikansky Russky Viestnik (defunct)
    • Besida, a Lemko journal
    • Karpatska Rus'
    • Lem.fm,[108] Gorlice, Poland
    • Lemko, Philadelphia, US (defunct)
    • Narodnȳ novynkȳ (Народны новинкы)
    • Podkarpatská Rus (Подкарпатська Русь)
    • Ruske slovo (Руске слово),[109] Ruski Krstur, Serbia
    • Rusnatsi u Shvetse (Руснаци у Швеце)[110]
    • Rusynska besida (Русинська бесіда)

    See also
    Rusyn edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    • Alexander Duchnovič's Theatre
    • Eastern Slovak dialects
    • Petro Trochanowski, contemporary Rusyn poet
    • Metodyj Trochanovskij, Lemko Grammarian
    • Iazychie

    Notes
    1. Original text: "Vchodnoslovensky [sic] (віходняски)"
    2. The terms "paired" and "unpaired" refer to a consonant's use with the soft sign, the letter ь. Consonants that can be palatalized with the soft sign are referred to as "paired consonants", as in the case of н/нь. Others that are inherently hard or soft and never appear with ь are referred to as "unpaired consonants", as in the cases of the letters к or ч.[79]
    3. Pugh refers to these collectively as "hushers".

    References
    1. "Number of population by mother tongue in the Slovak Republic at 1. 1. 2021". Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic. Archived from the original on 21 January 2022. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
    2. Republic of Serbia, Republic Statistical Office (24 December 2002). "Final results of the census 2002" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2009. Retrieved 16 December 2010.
    3. "Home" (PDF). Central Statistical Office of Poland. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 22 March 2012.
    4. State Statistics Committee of Ukraine. "About number and composition population of UKRAINE by data All-Ukrainian population census 2001 data". Archived from the original on 2 March 2008. Retrieved 16 December 2010.
    5. "Republic of Croatia – Central Bureau of Statistics". Crostat. Archived from the original on 27 May 2006. Retrieved 5 September 2010.
    6. "1.28 Population by mother tongue, nationality and sex, 1900–2001". Hungarian Central Statistical Office. 2001. Archived from the original on 20 November 2012. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
    7. "Obyvatelstvo podle věku, mateřského jazyka a pohlaví". Archived from the original on 27 June 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2012.
    8. Rusyn language at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
    9. Pugh 2009, p. vii.
    10. Rusyn at Ethnologue (21st ed., 2018)
    11. Council of Europe 2021.
    12. "Implementation of the Charter in Hungary". Database for the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Public Foundation for European Comparative Minority Research. Archived from the original on 27 February 2014. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
    13. "I Raport dla Sekretarza Rady Europy z realizacji przez Rzeczpospolitą Polską postanowień Europejskiej karty języków regionalnych lub mniejszościowych" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 July 2014. Retrieved 28 April 2019.
    14. "The Statue of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, Serbia". Skupstinavojvodine.gov.rs. Archived from the original on 3 March 2012. Retrieved 7 August 2012.
    15. "Home : Oxford English Dictionary". www.oed.com. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021.
    16. http://theses.gla.ac.uk/2781/1/2011BaptieMPhil-1.pdf Archived 23 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine, p. 8.
    17. Plishkova 2009, p. 17, 37, 67.
    18. Pugh 2009, p. 7.
    19. Magocsi 2015, p. 3-5.
    20. Pugh, 2009 & 2.
    21. Pugh 2009, p. 3.
    22. Magocsi & Pop 2005, p. 267-281.
    23. Kushko 2007, p. 111-132.
    24. "ISO 639-3: 639 Identifier Documentation: Rusyn (rue)". Archived from the original on 20 July 2021. Retrieved 22 June 2021.
    25. "Home : Oxford English Dictionary". www.oed.com. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021.
    26. Renoff & Reynolds 1975, p. 35, 51, 79-80.
    27. Moser 2016, p. 124-139.
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    Sources
    Rusyn edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Rusyn test of Wiktionary at Wikimedia Incubator
    Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rusyn language.

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