تاريخ اليهود في إيطاليا

يرجع تاريخ اليهود في إيطاليا إلى أكثر من 2000 عام. يعود تاريخ الوجود اليهودي في إيطاليا إلى الحقبة الرومانية ما قبل المسيحية واستمر منذ ذلك الوقت حتى يومنا هذا، على الرغم من وجود فترات اضطهاد شديد وترحيل. يُقدر عدد اليهود الأصليين في إيطاليا عام 2019 بنحو 45 ألفًا.[1]

كنيس روما الكبير

روما في الحقبة ما قبل المسيحية

من المرجح أن التجمع اليهودي في روما هو أقدم التجمعات اليهودية الباقية في العالم، إذ إنه موجود منذ العصور الكلاسيكية حتى يومنا هذا.[2] من المعروف بشكل مؤكد أن سمعان المكابي أرسل بعثة إلى روما عام 139 قبل الميلاد ليعزز التحالف مع الرومان ضد السلوقيين.[3] تلقى المبعوثون ترحيبًا حارًا من قبل أتباع دينهم الموجودين أصلًا في روما.

عاشت أعداد كبيرة من اليهود في روما حتى خلال حقبة الجمهورية الرومانية (حوالي 150 قبل الميلاد)، وكانوا فقراء وناطقين باللغة الإغريقية. نظرًا إلى معرفة روما المتزايدة بالمعاملات التجارية والعسكرية مع منطقة الشرق الأدنى الناطقة بالإغريقية، خلال القرنين الأول والثاني قبل الميلاد، جاء العديد من التجار الإغريق واليهود أيضًا إلى روما، أو أٌحضروا إلى هناك عبيدًا.[4]

يبدو أن الرومان اعتبروا اليهود متبعي أعراف دينية غريبة متخلفة، لكن لم توجد معاداة السامية حينئد كما وجدت في العالمين الإسلامي والمسيحي (انظر معاداة اليهودية في الإمبراطورية الرومانية ما قبل المسيحية).[5] على الرغم من احتقار الرومان للدين اليهودي، اعترفوا به واحترموا عراقته وشهرة المعبد في القدس (الهيكل الثاني). لم يعرف العديد من الرومان الكثير عن اليهودية، بما فيهم الإمبراطور أغسطس الذي اعتقد أن اليهود يصومون الشبات، وذلك وفقًا لسويتونيوس كاتب سيرته الذاتية. عُرف عن يوليوس قيصر بأنه من أصدقاء اليهود، وكانوا أول من رثاه عند اغتياله.[6]

كانت الجماعة اليهودية في روما عالية التنظيم، ويرأسها زعماء يطلق عليهم لقب «أركون». كان لليهود عدد من الجماعات المحلية اليهودية في روما. زُينت شواهد قبورهم، التي كُتب معظمها باليونانية مع القليل من العبرية، أو الآرامية، أو اللاتينية، برمز المينوراه (الشمعدان ذو الفروع السبعة).

كان اليهود في روما ما قبل المسيحية نشيطين جدًا في تبشير الرومان بدينهم، ما أدى إلى زيادة عدد معتنقي اليهودية بشكل علني، بالإضافة إلى أولئك ممن تبنوا بعض الطقوس اليهودية والإيمان بالإله اليهودي دون أن يعتنقو اليهودية فعليًا (أُطلق عليهم اسم خشاة الرب).

تذبذب مصير اليهود في روما وإيطاليا، بسبب شن الإمبراطورين تيبيريوس وكلوديوس حملات ترحيل جزئي.[7][8] بعد الحروب اليهودية الرومانية، جُلب العديد من يهود منطقة يهودا إلى روما بصفتهم عبيدًا (إذ جرت العادة في العالم القديم أن يُباع أسرى الحروب وقاطنو المدن المهزومة عبيدًا). سببت هذه الثورات زيادة العداء الرسمي من عهد فسبازيان فصاعدًا. كانت ضرائب اليهود الإجراء الأكثر خطورة، وهي ضريبة يدفعها كل اليهود في الإمبراطورية الرومانية. حلت الضريبة الجديدة محل ضريبة العشر التي كانت تُرسل من قبل إلى معبد القدس (الذي دمره الرومان عام 70 ميلادي)، واستُخدمت بدلًا من ذلك في معبد ثالوث كابيتولين في روما.

إلى جانب روما، كان هناك عدد كبير من التجمعات اليهودية في جنوب إيطاليا في تلك الفترة. على سبيل المثال، احتوت منطقة صقلية، وكالابريا، وبوليا على تجمعات يهودية مستقرة.[9]

العصور الوسطى

الإنجازات الأدبية

كان شبتاي دونولو من بين اليهود الأوائل في إيطاليا ممن خلفوا أثرًا لنشاطهم الأدبي (توفي عام 982). بعد قرنين من الزمن (1150)، أصبح شبتاي ابن موزيس وابنه جيهيل كالونيموس شاعرين ذوَي سلطة تلمودية حتى خارج إيطاليا، بالإضافة إلى رابي جيهيل من عائلة مانسي من روما. نضحت مؤلفاتهم بالفكر، ولكنهم استخدموا ألفاظًا فظة. كان ناثان، ابن رابي جيهيل المذكور آنفًا، مؤلف معجم التلمود («آروك») الذي أصبح أساس دراسة التلمود.

قام سليمان بن إبراهيم بن بارهون في أثناء إقامته في ساليرنو بتجميع قاموس عبري عزز دراسة التفسير التوراتي بين اليهود الإيطاليين. على أي حال، لم تكن الثقافة العبرية في حالة ازدهار على العموم. كان أيوب سليمان جالو المؤلف الطقسي الوحيد الجدير، وما تزال بعض مؤلفاته موجودة حتى اليوم. في النصف الثاني من القرن الثالث عشر، ظهرت علامات قيام ثقافة عبرية أفضل ودراسة أعمق للتلمود. ألف أشعيا دي تراني الأكبر (1232- 1279) -وهو ذو سلطة تلمودية كبيرة- العديد من الأجوبة الشرعية المحتفى بها. سار ابنه ديفيد وابن أخيه أشعيا دي تراني الأصغر على خطاه، وكذلك فعل أحفادهم حتى نهاية القرن السابع عشر. ترأس مير بن موزيس مدرسة تلمودية كبيرة في روما، بينما ترأس أبراهام بن جوريف مدرسة تلمودية في بيزارو. درّس طبيبان مشهوران، أبراهام وجيهيل، أحفاد ناثان بن جيهيل، التلمود في روما. كانت باولا دي مانسي إحدى نساء هذه العائلة الموهوبة، متميزة أيضًا، إذ كانت ذات معرفة تلمودية وتوراتية كبيرة، ودونت التعليقات التوراتية بخط جميل جدًا.

حول هذه الفترة، وظف الإمبراطور الروماني المقدس فريدريك الثاني، آخر من تبقى من آل هوهنشتاوفن، اليهود لترجمة الأطروحات العربية الفلسفية والفلكية، كان جودا كوين من طليطلة، وأقام في توسكانا لاحقًا من بين هؤلاء الكتّاب، بالإضافة إلى جاكوب أناتولي من بروفنس. أدى هذا التشجيع بطبيعة الحال إلى دراسة أعمال موسى بن ميمون- خصوصًا كتاب «دلالة الحائرين»- وهو كاتب هيليل الفيروني المفضل (1220- 1295). مارس الفيلسوف والأديب موسى بن ميمون الطب في روما وفي مدن إيطالية أخرى، وترجم عدة أعمال طبية إلى العبرية. كان لكتابات موسى بن ميمون التي تتسم بطابع حر معجبين في إيطاليا، على سبيل المثال، شبتاي بن سولمون من روما، وزراحیا هين البرشلوني، الذي هاجر إلى روما وساهم في انتشار المعرفة الموجودة في أعماله بشكل كبير. كان تأثير ذلك على اليهود الإيطاليين جليًا في حبهم لحرية الفكر واحترامهم للأدب، بالإضافة إلى تمسكهم بتقديم النصوص التوراتية بشكل حرفي ومعارضتهم للمتطرفين القباليين والنظريات الغامضة. كان إيمانويل بن سولمون من روما من معجبي تلك النظريات، وهو الصديق المشهور لدانتي أليغييري. ألحق الخلاف بين أتباع موسى بن ميمون ومعارضيه أضرارًا كبيرة بالمصالح اليهودية.

انظر أيضًا

مراجع

As reported by the American Jewish Yearbook (2007), on a total Italian population of circa 60 million people, which therefore is approx. 0.075%. Greater concentrations are in Rome and Milan. Cf. the demographic statistics by Sergio DellaPergola, published on World Jewish Population, American Jewish Committee, 2007.URL accessed 13 March 2013. As data originate from records kept by the various Italian Jewish congregations (which means they register "observant" Jews who have somehow had to go through basic rituals such as the Brit Milah or Bar/Bat Mitzvah etc.). Excluded are therefore "ethnic Jews", lay Jews, atheist/agnostic Jews, et al. – cfr. "Who is a Jew?". If these are added, then the total population would increase, possibly to approx. 45,000 Jews in Italy, not counting recent migrations from North Africa and Eastern Europe. نسخة محفوظة 2019-08-04 على موقع واي باك مشين.
"The Jewish Community of Rome"، The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot، مؤرشف من الأصل في 30 يوليو 2019.
1 Maccabees 14: 24: "After this Simon sent Numenius to Rome with a large gold shield weighing a thousand minas, to confirm the alliance with the Romans."
Philo of Alexandria, with Charles Duke Yonge, trans., The works of Philo Judaeus, the contemporary of Josephus (London, England: Henry G. Bohn, 1855), vol. 4, "A treatise on the virtues and on the office of ambassadors. Addressed to Caius.", p. 134. From p. 134: "How then did he [i.e., the emperor Caligula] look upon the great division of Rome which is on the other side of the river Tiber, which he was well aware was occupied and inhabited by the Jews? And they were mostly Roman citizens, having been emancipated; for, having been brought as captives into Italy, they were manumitted by those who had bought them for slaves, without ever having been compelled to alter any of their heredity or national observances." "نسخة مؤرشفة"، مؤرشف من الأصل في 1 يونيو 2020، اطلع عليه بتاريخ 22 أغسطس 2020.{{استشهاد ويب}}: صيانة CS1: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
However, the Roman author Valerius Maximus in Book 1, Chapter 3, § 3 of his book Factorum ac dictorum memorabilium libri IX (Nine books of memorable deeds and sayings), states that during the consulship of Marcus Popillius Laenas and Gnaeus Calpurnius (ca. 139 B.C.), the praetor Gnaeus Cornelius Hispanus expelled the Jews from Rome because they had tried to spread their religion among the Romans. See:
- Valerius Maximus, with Carl Halm, ed., Factorum et dictorum memorabilium libri novem (Leipzig, (Germany): Teubner, 1865), p. 17. (in Latin)
- Valerius Maximus with Henry John Walker, trans., Memorable Deeds and Sayings: One Thousand Tales from Ancient Rome (Indianapolis, Indiana, U.S.: Hackett Publishing Co., 2004), p. 14. نسخة محفوظة 1 يونيو 2020 على موقع واي باك مشين.
https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0011_0_10485.html; Suetonius, Divus Iulius, 84 (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#34) نسخة محفوظة 2017-01-01 على موقع واي باك مشين.
The expulsion of the Jews from Rome by the emperor Tiberius is mentioned in:
- Josephus Flavius, with William Whiston, trans., The Genuine Works of Flavius Josephus (New York, New York: Robinson, Pratt & Co., 1841), vol. 4, The Antiquities of the Jews: Book 18, Chapter 3, § 5, p. 68. From p. 68: "There was a man who was a Jew, but had been driven away from his own country by an accusation laid against him for transgressing their laws, and by the fear he was under of punishment for the same; but in all respects a wicked man. He, then living at Rome, professed to instruct men in the wisdom of the laws of Moses. He procured also three other men, entirely of the same character with himself, to be his partners. These men persuaded Fulvia, a woman of great dignity, and one that had embraced the Jewish religion, to send purple and gold to the temple at Jerusalem; and when they had gotten them, they employed them for their own uses, and spent the money themselves, on which account it was that they at first required it of her. Whereupon Tiberius, who had been informed of the thing by Saturninus, the husband of Fulvia, who desired inquiry might be made about it, ordered all of the Jews to be banished out of Rome; at which time the consuls listed four thousand men out of them, and sent them to the island of Sardinia; but punished a greater number of them, who were unwilling to become soldiers, on account of keeping the laws of their forefathers. Thus were the Jews banished out of the city by the wickedness of four men."
- Cornelius Tacitus, The Annals (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.: David McKay, 1897), Book 2, § 85, pp. 122–123. From pp. 122–123: "Measures were also taken for exterminating the solemnities of the Jews and the Egyptians; and a decree of the senate was passed, that four thousand descendants of franchised slaves, defiled with that superstition, and of age to carry arms, should be deported to Sardinia, to check the practice of freebootery there; and if, through the malignity of the climate, they perished, it would be small loss; that the rest should depart Italy, unless by a stated day they had renounced their profane rites."
- Suetonius, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars (New York, New York: The Modern Library, 1931), § 36, p. 142. From p. 142: "He [i.e., the emperor Tiberius] abolished foreign cults, especially the Egyptian and the Jewish rites, compelling all who were addicted to such superstitions to burn their religious vestments and all their paraphernalia. Those of the Jews who were of military age he assigned to provinces of less healthy climate, ostensibly to serve in the army. Others of the same race or of similar beliefs he banished from the city, on pain of slavery for life if they did not obey."
- Cassius Dio with Earnest Cary, trans., Dio's Roman History (London, England: William Heinemann Ltd., 1968), vol. 7, Book 57, Ch. 18, line 5a, p. 163. From p. 163: "As the Jews had flocked to Rome in great numbers and were converting many of the natives to their ways, he [i.e., the emperor Tiberius] banished most of them."
- Smallwood, E. Mary (1956)، "Some notes on the Jews under Tiberius"، Latomus، 15: 314–329.
The expulsion of the Jews from Rome by the emperor Claudius is mentioned in:
- Acts 18:1–3: "After this, Paul left Athens and went to Corinth. There he met a Jew named Aquila, a native of Pontus, who had recently come from Italy with his wife Priscilla, because Claudius had ordered all Jews to leave Rome. Paul went to see them, and because he was a tentmaker as they were, he stayed and worked with them."
- Suetonius, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars (New York, New York: The Modern Library, 1931), §25, p. 227. From p. 227: "Since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he [i.e., the emperor Claudius] expelled them from Rome."
- However, Cassius Dio states that Claudius did not expel all of the Jews from Rome. Cassius Dio with Earnest Cary, trans., Dio's Roman History (London, England: William Heinemann Ltd., 1968), vol. 7, Book 60, Ch. 6, lines 6–7, p. 383. From p. 383: "As for the Jews, who had again increased so greatly that by reason of their multitude it would have been hard without raising a tumult to bar them from the city, he did not drive them out, but ordered them, while continuing their traditional mode of life, not to hold meetings."
- See also Wikipedia's article: Claudius' expulsion of Jews from Rome. "نسخة مؤرشفة"، مؤرشف من الأصل في 25 أكتوبر 2019، اطلع عليه بتاريخ 1 يونيو 2020.{{استشهاد ويب}}: صيانة CS1: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
"Greece-Italy and the Mediterranean Islands"، Jewish Web Index، مؤرشف من الأصل في 14 مارس 2012.

بوابة التاريخ
بوابة إيطاليا
بوابة اليهودية

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[World_Jewish_Population-1] As reported by the American Jewish Yearbook (2007), on a total Italian population of circa 60 million people, which therefore is approx. 0.075%. Greater concentrations are in Rome and Milan. Cf. the demographic statistics by Sergio DellaPergola, published on World Jewish Population, American Jewish Committee, 2007.URL accessed 13 March 2013. As data originate from records kept by the various Italian Jewish congregations (which means they register "observant" Jews who have somehow had to go through basic rituals such as the Brit Milah or Bar/Bat Mitzvah etc.). Excluded are therefore "ethnic Jews", lay Jews, atheist/agnostic Jews, et al. – cfr. "Who is a Jew?". If these are added, then the total population would increase, possibly to approx. 45,000 Jews in Italy, not counting recent migrations from North Africa and Eastern Europe. نسخة محفوظة 2019-08-04 على موقع واي باك مشين.

[2] "The Jewish Community of Rome"، The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot، مؤرشف من الأصل في 30 يوليو 2019.

[3] 1 Maccabees 14: 24: "After this Simon sent Numenius to Rome with a large gold shield weighing a thousand minas, to confirm the alliance with the Romans."

[4] Philo of Alexandria, with Charles Duke Yonge, trans., The works of Philo Judaeus, the contemporary of Josephus (London, England: Henry G. Bohn, 1855), vol. 4, "A treatise on the virtues and on the office of ambassadors. Addressed to Caius.", p. 134. From p. 134: "How then did he [i.e., the emperor Caligula] look upon the great division of Rome which is on the other side of the river Tiber, which he was well aware was occupied and inhabited by the Jews? And they were mostly Roman citizens, having been emancipated; for, having been brought as captives into Italy, they were manumitted by those who had bought them for slaves, without ever having been compelled to alter any of their heredity or national observances." "نسخة مؤرشفة"، مؤرشف من الأصل في 1 يونيو 2020، اطلع عليه بتاريخ 22 أغسطس 2020.{{استشهاد ويب}}: صيانة CS1: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)

[5] However, the Roman author Valerius Maximus in Book 1, Chapter 3, § 3 of his book Factorum ac dictorum memorabilium libri IX (Nine books of memorable deeds and sayings), states that during the consulship of Marcus Popillius Laenas and Gnaeus Calpurnius (ca. 139 B.C.), the praetor Gnaeus Cornelius Hispanus expelled the Jews from Rome because they had tried to spread their religion among the Romans. See:
Valerius Maximus, with Carl Halm, ed., Factorum et dictorum memorabilium libri novem (Leipzig, (Germany): Teubner, 1865), p. 17. (in Latin)

Valerius Maximus with Henry John Walker, trans., Memorable Deeds and Sayings: One Thousand Tales from Ancient Rome (Indianapolis, Indiana, U.S.: Hackett Publishing Co., 2004), p. 14. نسخة محفوظة 1 يونيو 2020 على موقع واي باك مشين.

[6] Valerius Maximus, with Carl Halm, ed., Factorum et dictorum memorabilium libri novem (Leipzig, (Germany): Teubner, 1865), p. 17. (in Latin)

[7] Valerius Maximus with Henry John Walker, trans., Memorable Deeds and Sayings: One Thousand Tales from Ancient Rome (Indianapolis, Indiana, U.S.: Hackett Publishing Co., 2004), p. 14. نسخة محفوظة 1 يونيو 2020 على موقع واي باك مشين.

[6] ttps://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0011_0_10485.html; Suetonius, Divus Iulius, 84 (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#34) نسخة محفوظة 2017-01-01 على موقع واي باك مشين.

[7] The expulsion of the Jews from Rome by the emperor Tiberius is mentioned in:
Josephus Flavius, with William Whiston, trans., The Genuine Works of Flavius Josephus (New York, New York: Robinson, Pratt & Co., 1841), vol. 4, The Antiquities of the Jews: Book 18, Chapter 3, § 5, p. 68. From p. 68: "There was a man who was a Jew, but had been driven away from his own country by an accusation laid against him for transgressing their laws, and by the fear he was under of punishment for the same; but in all respects a wicked man. He, then living at Rome, professed to instruct men in the wisdom of the laws of Moses. He procured also three other men, entirely of the same character with himself, to be his partners. These men persuaded Fulvia, a woman of great dignity, and one that had embraced the Jewish religion, to send purple and gold to the temple at Jerusalem; and when they had gotten them, they employed them for their own uses, and spent the money themselves, on which account it was that they at first required it of her. Whereupon Tiberius, who had been informed of the thing by Saturninus, the husband of Fulvia, who desired inquiry might be made about it, ordered all of the Jews to be banished out of Rome; at which time the consuls listed four thousand men out of them, and sent them to the island of Sardinia; but punished a greater number of them, who were unwilling to become soldiers, on account of keeping the laws of their forefathers. Thus were the Jews banished out of the city by the wickedness of four men."

Cornelius Tacitus, The Annals (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.: David McKay, 1897), Book 2, § 85, pp. 122–123. From pp. 122–123: "Measures were also taken for exterminating the solemnities of the Jews and the Egyptians; and a decree of the senate was passed, that four thousand descendants of franchised slaves, defiled with that superstition, and of age to carry arms, should be deported to Sardinia, to check the practice of freebootery there; and if, through the malignity of the climate, they perished, it would be small loss; that the rest should depart Italy, unless by a stated day they had renounced their profane rites."

Suetonius, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars (New York, New York: The Modern Library, 1931), § 36, p. 142. From p. 142: "He [i.e., the emperor Tiberius] abolished foreign cults, especially the Egyptian and the Jewish rites, compelling all who were addicted to such superstitions to burn their religious vestments and all their paraphernalia. Those of the Jews who were of military age he assigned to provinces of less healthy climate, ostensibly to serve in the army. Others of the same race or of similar beliefs he banished from the city, on pain of slavery for life if they did not obey."

Cassius Dio with Earnest Cary, trans., Dio's Roman History (London, England: William Heinemann Ltd., 1968), vol. 7, Book 57, Ch. 18, line 5a, p. 163. From p. 163: "As the Jews had flocked to Rome in great numbers and were converting many of the natives to their ways, he [i.e., the emperor Tiberius] banished most of them."

Smallwood, E. Mary (1956)، "Some notes on the Jews under Tiberius"، Latomus، 15: 314–329.

[10] Josephus Flavius, with William Whiston, trans., The Genuine Works of Flavius Josephus (New York, New York: Robinson, Pratt & Co., 1841), vol. 4, The Antiquities of the Jews: Book 18, Chapter 3, § 5, p. 68. From p. 68: "There was a man who was a Jew, but had been driven away from his own country by an accusation laid against him for transgressing their laws, and by the fear he was under of punishment for the same; but in all respects a wicked man. He, then living at Rome, professed to instruct men in the wisdom of the laws of Moses. He procured also three other men, entirely of the same character with himself, to be his partners. These men persuaded Fulvia, a woman of great dignity, and one that had embraced the Jewish religion, to send purple and gold to the temple at Jerusalem; and when they had gotten them, they employed them for their own uses, and spent the money themselves, on which account it was that they at first required it of her. Whereupon Tiberius, who had been informed of the thing by Saturninus, the husband of Fulvia, who desired inquiry might be made about it, ordered all of the Jews to be banished out of Rome; at which time the consuls listed four thousand men out of them, and sent them to the island of Sardinia; but punished a greater number of them, who were unwilling to become soldiers, on account of keeping the laws of their forefathers. Thus were the Jews banished out of the city by the wickedness of four men."

[11] Cornelius Tacitus, The Annals (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.: David McKay, 1897), Book 2, § 85, pp. 122–123. From pp. 122–123: "Measures were also taken for exterminating the solemnities of the Jews and the Egyptians; and a decree of the senate was passed, that four thousand descendants of franchised slaves, defiled with that superstition, and of age to carry arms, should be deported to Sardinia, to check the practice of freebootery there; and if, through the malignity of the climate, they perished, it would be small loss; that the rest should depart Italy, unless by a stated day they had renounced their profane rites."

[12] Suetonius, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars (New York, New York: The Modern Library, 1931), § 36, p. 142. From p. 142: "He [i.e., the emperor Tiberius] abolished foreign cults, especially the Egyptian and the Jewish rites, compelling all who were addicted to such superstitions to burn their religious vestments and all their paraphernalia. Those of the Jews who were of military age he assigned to provinces of less healthy climate, ostensibly to serve in the army. Others of the same race or of similar beliefs he banished from the city, on pain of slavery for life if they did not obey."

[13] Cassius Dio with Earnest Cary, trans., Dio's Roman History (London, England: William Heinemann Ltd., 1968), vol. 7, Book 57, Ch. 18, line 5a, p. 163. From p. 163: "As the Jews had flocked to Rome in great numbers and were converting many of the natives to their ways, he [i.e., the emperor Tiberius] banished most of them."

[14] Smallwood, E. Mary (1956)، "Some notes on the Jews under Tiberius"، Latomus، 15: 314–329.

[8] The expulsion of the Jews from Rome by the emperor Claudius is mentioned in:
Acts 18:1–3: "After this, Paul left Athens and went to Corinth. There he met a Jew named Aquila, a native of Pontus, who had recently come from Italy with his wife Priscilla, because Claudius had ordered all Jews to leave Rome. Paul went to see them, and because he was a tentmaker as they were, he stayed and worked with them."

Suetonius, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars (New York, New York: The Modern Library, 1931), §25, p. 227. From p. 227: "Since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he [i.e., the emperor Claudius] expelled them from Rome."

However, Cassius Dio states that Claudius did not expel all of the Jews from Rome. Cassius Dio with Earnest Cary, trans., Dio's Roman History (London, England: William Heinemann Ltd., 1968), vol. 7, Book 60, Ch. 6, lines 6–7, p. 383. From p. 383: "As for the Jews, who had again increased so greatly that by reason of their multitude it would have been hard without raising a tumult to bar them from the city, he did not drive them out, but ordered them, while continuing their traditional mode of life, not to hold meetings."

See also Wikipedia's article: Claudius' expulsion of Jews from Rome. "نسخة مؤرشفة"، مؤرشف من الأصل في 25 أكتوبر 2019، اطلع عليه بتاريخ 1 يونيو 2020.{{استشهاد ويب}}: صيانة CS1: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)

[16] Acts 18:1–3: "After this, Paul left Athens and went to Corinth. There he met a Jew named Aquila, a native of Pontus, who had recently come from Italy with his wife Priscilla, because Claudius had ordered all Jews to leave Rome. Paul went to see them, and because he was a tentmaker as they were, he stayed and worked with them."

[17] Suetonius, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars (New York, New York: The Modern Library, 1931), §25, p. 227. From p. 227: "Since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he [i.e., the emperor Claudius] expelled them from Rome."

[18] However, Cassius Dio states that Claudius did not expel all of the Jews from Rome. Cassius Dio with Earnest Cary, trans., Dio's Roman History (London, England: William Heinemann Ltd., 1968), vol. 7, Book 60, Ch. 6, lines 6–7, p. 383. From p. 383: "As for the Jews, who had again increased so greatly that by reason of their multitude it would have been hard without raising a tumult to bar them from the city, he did not drive them out, but ordered them, while continuing their traditional mode of life, not to hold meetings."

[19] See also Wikipedia's article: Claudius' expulsion of Jews from Rome. "نسخة مؤرشفة"، مؤرشف من الأصل في 25 أكتوبر 2019، اطلع عليه بتاريخ 1 يونيو 2020.{{استشهاد ويب}}: صيانة CS1: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)

[9] "Greece-Italy and the Mediterranean Islands"، Jewish Web Index، مؤرشف من الأصل في 14 مارس 2012.