Architecture of Central Asia

The Muslim conquest of Transoxiana was completed by the mid-8th century, after which the local population progressively converted to Islam.[15] By the 10th century, the political authority of the Abbasid Caliphate had declined and regional empires and dynasties emerged, including the Samanid dynasty, which ruled in Khurasan and Transoxiana.[16]

It is around this time, in the 10th century, that distinctive regional features begin to appear that would characterize Islamic architecture in Iran and Central Asia.[16] These characteristics include the use of baked brick as the dominant medium for both construction and decoration, in addition to the use of ceramic tile for surface decoration. Muqarnas, a form of three-dimensional geometric vaulting that became characteristic of Islamic architecture more widely, also seems to have developed in this region around this time as a transitional architectural element, initially a tripartite subdivision of the more traditional squinch. For mosques, the hypostyle layout of early Islamic architecture continued to be used, alongside new types like multi-domed mosques.[16]

The Samanid Mausoleum in Bukhara (10th century)

Among the most notable monuments of this period is the Samanid Mausoleum in Bukhara, one of the oldest preserved mausoleums in the Islamic world. It is a small brick structure with a square floor plan covered by a dome that rests on four corner squinches. Its decorative brickwork and its balanced, unified design make it an important monument in the region's architectural history.[17]

Turkic peoples began moving west across Central Asia and towards the Middle East from the 8th century onward. The most significant of these were the Seljuk Turks, who formed the Great Seljuk Empire in the 11th century, conquering all of Iran and other extensive territories in Central Asia and the Middle East. Around the same time, between the late 10th century and the early 13th century, the Turkic Qarakhanids ruled in Transoxiana.[18]^{: 348–353}[16] Further east, the major powers were the Ghaznavids, who became independent in the late 10th century and ruled from Ghazna, in present-day Afghanistan, and the Ghurids, who replaced them in the second half of the 12th century.[19][20]^: 134

This period is also regarded as a "classical" age of Central Asian architecture.[18]^: 354 The apogee of the Great Seljuks was short-lived, but their architectural patronage was an important stage in the evolution of architecture in Iran and Central Asia.[21][22] The other empires and dynasties in the region, including the Qarakhanids, the Ghaznavids, and the Ghurids, built their monuments in a very similar style, so that a certain architectural style came to be shared across most of the eastern Islamic world during this time.[21][22] Some of the most important Seljuk monuments are found in present-day Iran. The Great Mosque of Isfahan, for example, attests to one of the major developments at this time: the elaboration of the four-iwan plan for mosque architecture, which quickly became a recurring type across the region.[16]

Kufic inscription and brickwork on the minaret of Vabkent from the Qarakhanid period, showing terracotta plugs of different shape inserted between stacks of regular bricks

Meanwhile, the Qarakhanid dynasty erected many impressive structures in Bukhara and Samarkand (present-day Uzbekistan). Among the surviving religious monuments of Qarakhanid architecture are the great congregational mosque in Bukhara, of which only the Kalyan Minaret (c. 1127) survives (later integrated into the present day Po-i-Kalyan), as well as the nearby Minaret of Vabkent (1141). Several Qarakhanid mausoleums with monumental façades have also survived, such as those in Uzgen (present-day Kyrgyzstan) from the second half of the 12th century.[18]^{: 354–360} The Qarakhanids themselves were often vassals of other, more powerful states, but their monuments still exhibit some minor local features that distinguish them from other patrons in the region. This style was influenced by earlier Samanid architecture and it continued to be present in the region after the dynasty itself ended in 1212, eventually becoming one of the influences on later Timurid architecture.[13]^: 1–2 According to a study by Richard Piran McClary, the most distinctly Qarakhanid features are mainly found in decoration. One feature is the presence of a wide central rib in the semi-domes of portals and squinches (e.g. at the Aisha Bibi Tomb in Taraz). Another is the insertion of terracotta blocks, cut in various shapes, into the gaps between stacks of regular bricks that make up the exterior walls of monuments (e.g. in the Minaret of Vabkent).[13]^{: 202–249}

Mausoleum of Fakhr al-Din Razi or Il-Arslan in Kunya-Urgench, Turkmenistan, late 12th or early 13th century (Khwarazmian period)

Among the most remarkable monuments of Ghurids and Ghaznavids in present-day Afghanistan are a number of ornate brick towers and minarets which have survived as stand-alone structures. Their exact functions are unclear. They include the Ghaznavid Tower of Mas'ud III (early 12th century) and the Ghurid Minaret of Jam (late 12th century).[19][20]^{: 150–152}

The Khwarazm-Shahs took advantage of the Seljuk decline in the 12th century to expand and form their own Khwarazmian Empire across Iran and Central Asia, before falling to the Mongol invasions in the early 13th century.[20]^: 134[23] The site of the former Khwarazmian capital, Kunya-Urgench (present-day Turkmenistan), has preserved several monuments from the Khwarazmian Empire period (late 12th and early 13th century), including the so-called Mausoleum of Fakhr al-Din Razi (which may actually be the tomb of Il-Arslan) and the Mausoleum of Sultan Tekesh.[18]^{: 360–366}[24]

The Timurid Empire was founded by Timur in 1370 and contained areas of present-day Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.[25] Timurid architecture employed some Seljuk traditions, and featured grand scale buildings constructed from fired bricks.[26] The exteriors of buildings were decorated with highly detailed blue and turquoise linear and geometric patterning of glazed tiles, inspired by Iranian Banna’i technique.[27] As is consistent with Islamic architecture, Timurid architecture also often features domes and minarets, the latter from which the call to prayer is called.[28]

Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi, Turkistan, Kazakhstan.

In the south of modern-day Kazakhstan, the influence of the Timurid Empire can also be found in Turkistan. An example of this architecture is the Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi, which was commissioned in 1389 by Timur in order to replace a smaller 12th century Mausoleum for Khoja Ahmed Yasawi.[2] The partly unfinished mausoleum is an example of the Islamic stylings of Timurid architecture. It features fired brick construction and geometric patterned decorations made with glazed tiles.[2] The mausoleum also features tiled patterns on the interior of the building.[2]

In Uzbekistan, numerous examples of Timurid architecture can be found in Samarkand, which was the capital of the Timurid Empire from its establishment in 1370 until it moved to Herat in the early 15th century. As it was the royal city, Timur often brought artisans back from defeated cities to build in Samarkand.[29] An example of Timurid Architecture in Samarkand is the Bibi-Khanym Mosque. The mosque was built between 1399 and 1404 in order to commemorate the wife of Timur, and was completed before Timur’s death in 1405.[3][30] At the time of construction, it was one of the largest mosques in the world and is still the largest in Samarkand.[31] As is consistent with other Timurid architecture, the mosque features glazed ceramic designs, a turquoise dome and geometric patterning of walls. Another notable example of Timurid architecture found in Samarkand is the Gur-e-Amir (or Gur-Emir) Mausoleum. Built in 1403 and 1404, the mausoleum is the tomb of Timur and his sons Shah Rukh and Miran Shah, along with other family members.[32] The mausoleum is decorated with blue and white tiles, as well as large mosaics. These are features of Timurid architecture and also exhibit Iranian influence.[29] The building also features a large Islamic-style dome and minarets that were refurbished in the 1950s.[32] Timur was born in Shahrisabz, an Uzbekistani city located roughly 50 miles South of Samarkand. In the city, Timur also constructed Aq Saray (White Palace) in 1380 after a victorious battle with Urgench.[33]^: 6[34] Despite only part of the original building remaining, Aq Saray also demonstrates being decorated by geometrically patterned glazed tiles, a feature found throughout Timurid Architecture.[34]

• 
  Bibi Khanym Mosque, Samarkand.
• 
  Bibi Khanym Mosque, Samarkand.
• 
  Gur-E-Emir Mausoleum, Samarkand.
• 
  Aq Saray (White Palace), Shahrizsabz.

After the Timurids, various regional dynasties and ruling groups controlled Central Asia, including the Shaybanids and other Uzbek tribal leaders. Monumental buildings continued to be built here, drawing on the traditional Timurid style.[35]

Courtyard of the Po-i-Kalyan Mosque in Bukhara (16th century), looking towards the iwan that leads to the maqsura

In Bukhara, the Shaybanids created the present Po-i-Kalyan complex, integrating the Qarakhanid-era Kalan Minaret, renovating the old mosque in 1514, and adding the large Mir-i 'Arab Madrasa (1535–6).[36]^{: 199–201} The mosque's design follows the traditional layout, with a large rectangular courtyard surrounded by four iwans and prayer halls covered by domes supported on pillars. The maqsura (area near the mihrab) is covered by a large double-shelled dome set on a tall cylindrical drum. The mosque is built of brick and uses both tilework and brickwork for decoration.[4]^: 497

Later, in Samarkand, the local ruler Yalangtush Bi Alchin gave the Registan its current appearance by building two new madrasas across from Ulugh Beg's madrasa. The Sher-Dor Madrasa (1616–1636) imitates the form of the Ulugh Beg Madrasa, while the Tilla Kar Madrasa (1646–1660) is both a mosque and a madrasa.[37]

Wooden hypostyle prayer hall of the Friday Mosque of Khiva (18th century)

Architectural activity became less significant in the region after the 17th century, with the exception of Khiva, the center of the Khanate of Khiva. The Friday mosque of Khiva, with its distinctive hypostyle hall of wooden columns, was rebuilt in this form in 1788–9.[38] The mosque, along with some of the city's other historic Islamic-era monuments, are located within Itchan Kala, the inner fortified section of the city.[39] A later monument in Bukhara, built under the Khanate of Khiva, is the Chor Minor (Char Minar), completed in 1807. It served as the gateway to madrasa and has an unusual design: a tetrapylon crowned by four heavy circular corner towers.[40]