Donghak Peasant Revolution

The first major revolt was the Gwanseo Peasant War (1811–1812). Rebel leader Hong Gyeong-rae had prepared for the rebellion since 1801. By September 1811, Hong Gyeong-rae had gathered an army in Chudo Island, gathering support from the rich landowners.[5]

The revolt began on 18 December, with the writing of the following message in Jeongju Fortress:

I, the Great Leader of Western Pyongan, write this message with haste. Since old, the Gwanseo Region was the abode of Dangun (Mythical founder of Korea), and Gwanseo was the key to the two wars (Japanese. Manchu invasions of Korea). Is it not injust, how the government treats us? There is a young king (King Sunjo), and corrupt officials are everywhere around him. As Kim Josun and Park Jonggyeong rule the country as if it is theirs, the government is in chaos, and the people are poor. But thankfully, a man has emerged who shall save the world. Open your doors wide and meet our army. If any foolishly resist, we shall crush you with our 5,000 swords...[6]

Hong Gyeong-rae captured most of the Gwanseo Region in ten days. However, his army was defeated in the Battle of Songnim, and by January 1812 was isolated in Jeongju Fortress. Governmental forces finally collapsed the walls of Jeongju by using eleven tons of explosives dug under the wall. All male rebels above the age of ten were executed.[7]

Another large-scale revolt was the Imsul Peasant Revolts (1862), in which 71 towns simultaneously revolted. The government often taxed dead people or infants, although only those over fifteen were legally eligible to be taxed. Moreover, most of the remainder were given to the landowner. The revolt began on 10 February in Jinju. The people of Jinju captured the magistrate Baek Nakshin, and burned landlords Jeong Namseong, Seong Buin, and Choe Jinsa at the stake. Their sons were killed as well while attempting to save their fathers. The revolts soon spread throughout most of Southern Korea, and continued until January 1863. The people of Gwangju even rode to Seoul. The revolts were most severe in Jeolla Province, the later site of the Donghak Revolution, in which 38 of 54 towns actively revolted.[8]

Various secret societies formed, apart from the rebellions, including the Salbangye, 'Association of the killers of the Yangban (aristocrats)', the Saljugye, 'Association of the killers of the (slave's) masters', the Salryakgye, 'Association of killers and robbers', the Geomgye, 'Sword association', the Judogye, 'Association of the drunk', the Yudan, 'League of Wanderers', and the Nokrimdang, 'Group of the Green Woods' (Nokrimdang were 'noble thieves', who stole from the rich and gave to the poor).[9]

It was in this turbulent age that the Donghak religion was formed. Its founder, Choe Je-u, described the founding of the religion, which was later transcribed by Choe Sihyeong, the second Donghak leader:

By 1860, I heard rumours that the people of the West worship God, and caring not for wealth, conquer the world, building temples and spreading their faith. I was wondering whether I, too, could do such a thing. On an April day, my mind was unnerved and my body trembled... Suddenly a voice could be heard. I rose and asked who he was.

"Do not fear nor be scared! The people of the world call me Hanulnim. How do you not know me?" Said Hanul. I asked the reason he had appeared to me. "...I made you in this world so that you could teach my holy word to the people. Do not doubt my word!" Hanulnim replied. "Do you seek to teach the people with Christianity?" I asked again. "No. I have a magical talisman... use this talisman and save the people from disease, and use this book to teach the people to venerate me!"[10]

Donghak was a mixture of various religions. Its core tenets and beliefs (monotheism, sacred book, organized religion) are similar to Christianity. Choe himself said that "the meanings [between Christianity and Donghak] are the same; only the words are different".[11][12] The Donghak conversion rite, in which hundreds of people gathered in an open place and knelt before a cup of clean water, was partly influenced by the Christian baptism ritual.[13]

However, many direct influences were from shamanism and folk beliefs. Witnesses record that Choe Je-u participated in animistic rituals to mountain deities. His incantations and the Sword Dance were also derived from shamanism.[14][15]

Certain beliefs were unique to Donghak. Choe Je-u said that "All humans are Hanulnim". Choe promoted human equality, and created certain ideologies such as the belief that the world was a cycle of 5,000 years (Jeoncheon and Hucheon), and that this cycle was ending to make way for a new world.[16] This made Donghak potentially dangerous to the Joseon Dynasty, which banned the religion and executed Choe in 1864 for 'Tricking and Lying to the Foolish People'.[17]

Nevertheless, Donghak spread all across Gyeongsang Province by the 1870s, causing need for a better organization. Donghak was organized into 'Jeob' and 'Po'. A 'Jeobju' administered a 'Jeob'.[lower-alpha 2] For example, Jeon Bong-jun, the leader of the revolution, was Jeobju of Gobu. Under a Jeobju was a 'Myeonjeobju'. In large towns (such as Taein or Jeonju) were a 'Great Jeobju', as Kim Gae-nam was the Great Jeobju of Taein. Various Jeobs were organized into a 'Po', and a 'Poju' led a Po. The 'Gyoju', at the time Choe Sihyeong, led the whole Donghak religion.[18]

In 1871, Yi Pil-je, Jeobju of Yeonghae, revolted using the Donghak infrastructure. The revolt failed, but proved that Donghak was a danger to the feudalistic Korean society.[19]

Yi Pil-je's Revolt seriously undermined Donghak in Gyeongsang Province, causing Choe Sihyeong to spread the religion to the populous provinces of Chungcheong and Jeolla. Choe wandered around these two provinces, spreading Donghak. Son Hwa-jung was one of the first to convert in 1881, and he converted Jeon in 1891. Son Byong-hi was converted in 1882 by Choe himself, as was Kim Gae-nam in 1890.[20][21] As seen below, he claimed conversion in 1891.

Jeolla Province was the revolution's center, and were completely seized by the rebels. They formed the core of the Anti-Japanese Frontier, and often aided Gyeongsang and Chungcheong rebels. Kim Inbae of Gwangyang and Yi Bangeon of Jangheung formed the core of South Jeolla rebels.

Namwon and Unbong were ruled by Kim Gae-nam's rebels. However, Kim Gae-nam had gone to attack Cheongju far to the north, and with his absence, the governmental soldiers attacked Namwon. On 13 November, the rebels were driven away from the outskirts of Namwon in a small battle. The 3,000 rebels fled to Namwon Fortress. Jo Byeongho, the governmental leader, led 2,000 soldiers armed with modern weapons to besiege Namwon. Although the fortress was bombed and shelled, the rebels did not come out. Finally, the governmental troops stacked hay around the east, west, and south walls, and burned the hay. The wooden doors burned along, and the rebels fled through the north door. Hundreds of rebels were killed in the Siege of Namwon.[65]

In Jindo, the third largest island of Korea (after Jeju and Geoje), Na Chihyeon of Naju converted the population to Donghak in January 1892. After the fall of Jeonju Fortress, the Jindo magistrate Yi Heuiseung (who, like Jo, built two monuments to himself[66]) fled. However, Confucian scholars maintained order in the island through an army called Suseonggun. In July, Son Haenggwon assaulted Susseonggun bases, taking matchlock rifles, swords, bullets, gunpowder, and tridents. At a similar time, Park Jungjin attacked the Suseonggun at Shimijang village. He was killed, and his daughter captured; descendants destroyed the family tree and burned down the house.

After arrivals of new officials, the Jindo rebels joined the Naju rebels. Most were captured and sent back to Jindo. On 10 October, 1,322 soldiers, composed mainly of slaves and lower officials, were sent to defend Jindo against possible rebel attacks.

In December, rebels who had fought under Yi Bangeon hid into Jindo after the Battle of Seokdae Fields. However, the rebels had lost all military power, and were captured and imprisoned. On 27 December, Japanese soldiers executed fifty rebels. Cheondoism remained in Jindo until the 1950s.[67]

Gyeongsang Province had a strong Confucian influence, and the casualties of Yi Pil-je's Revolt in 1871 were still fresh. It took until August for Gyeongsang rebels to begin revolting. Suppression of revolts were an organized effort, with Toposa officials specializing in anti-rebel campaigns.

The forces of the Southwest coasts of Korea were special in that the forces of Jeolla and Gyeongsang Provinces cooperated to attack Jinju Fortress. They are collectively termed under the name 'Jinju Rebels'.

On 7 May, Kim Inbae, the Great Jeobju of Geumgu, built a Jibgangso in Suncheon, Jeolla Province. On 1 September, Kim crossed the Gyeongsang-Jeolla boundary. His strategy was to charge through the southern coastline to Busan, and thus grasp the Japanese-Korean borderline.

Meanwhile, Hadong and Jinju, which were Kim's target, were experiencing rebel activities. Hadong rebels were chased west by the government, joining Kim Inbae. With the guidance of the Hadong rebels, Kim Inbae captured Hadong on 7 September.

In Jinju, the leadership recruited rebels by sending out public documents in major markets. On 8 September 1894, 7,000 rebels gathered in Sugok Market and established the Chungyeong Daedoso, a center of rebel activities. By 17 September, a joint army of Suncheon and Jinju rebels had captured Jinju fortress.

The rebels held flags signaling their own Po and Jeob, and spread manifestos titled To the People of the Towns of Gyeongsang throughout nearby villages. The manifesto said the following.

• The state is the people, and the people are the state.
• We have had a council in Jinju in order to punish the Japanese invasion.
• All believers in Donghak must rise up and punish corrupt officials who support the Japanese.
• Report anti-rebel armies to the Chunggyeong Daedoso.

In response to the fall of Jinju Fortress, the government sent Ji Seokyeong as Toposa of Jinju, a government official who specialized in the suppression of Donghak revolutions.

On 10 October, 400 rebels gathered in Mount Geumo, a few kilometers west of Jinju, where they were ambushed by Japanese forces. Although the rebels lost more than seventy men in the consequent Battle of Mount Geumo, the rebels still held Jinju Fortress.

On 14 October, 5,000 rebels defended Mount Goseong Fortress against the Japanese. The rebels, using the fortress, fought fiercely against Colonel Suzuki's Japanese battalion, but were ultimately defeated by Japanese firepower. 187 rebels were killed, causing Mount Goseong to be called Mount Gosireong, after the sound that a decomposing corpse makes when it rains. The remnants of the rebels fled to Mount Jiri, where they became the Righteous Army.[68]

Chungcheong rebels were under the command of Son Byong-hi, who led the Northern Jeob into battle at Ugeumchi. After defeat at Ugeumchi, Son continued the rebellion until the Battle of Jonggok, 18 December. Chungcheong was the location of the December battles.

Rebel leader Kim Gae-nam, also known as 'King Gae-nam', fought in the Battle of Cheongju

On 9 October, before the Council of Samrye had reached its conclusion, there was a minor skirmish in Daejeon, at the time a small village called Hanbat, between rebels and governmental forces. This came to be called the Daejeon Massacre. 78 governmental soldiers were given alcohol by rebels, then killed while drunk.[69]

Meanwhile, the city of Cheongju was the Donghak division commanded by the Great Jeobju, Son Cheonmin. Kim Gae-nam and Son Cheonmin cooperated to attack Cheongju in the Battle of Cheongju, 9 December 1894. Because Kim did not fight at Ugeumchi, his army of 25,000 was still strong.

When Jeon and Son gathered the rebel forces in Samrye, Kim did not cooperate. He began his own attack only after the Battle of Ugeumchi, and by 9 December reached Cheongju Fortress.

Kim's opponent was Kuwabara Eiziro and his Japanese battalion, along with governmental troops with little morale. Kim's 15,000 men attacked from south, while Son Cheonmin's 10,000 men attacked from the north. The defenders of Cheongju lacked morale due to the Daejeon Massacre, and Kim nearly broke through the south door. Eiziro suddenly assaulted the rebels, and Kim retreated to Muneui.

200 rebels were killed in the Battle of Cheongju. The rebels also lost large amounts of weaponry, including many rebel banners, thousands of bows and arrows, 140 rifles, 2,000 flintlock muskets, 150 kilograms of gunpowder, 2 cannons, and 50 horses.[70] After the Battle of Cheongju, Kim went south to Muneui, but were defeated once more. He went in hiding, just as Jeon Bong-jun did.

Although Choe Sihyeong had banned rebel activities among the Northern Jeob during the spring of 1894, many Chungcheong rebels were Northern Jeob. By 22 March, rebels of Hoenggang, Yeongdeung, Cheongsan, Boeun, Okcheon, Jinjam, Muneui, Goesan, and Yeongpung were already giving the wealth of the rich to the poor, and beat and castrated corrupt Yangban. However, the Chungju rebels temporarily stopped activities due to the beginning of the Sino-Japanese War.

The Battle of Pungdo and the Battle of Seonghwan were both fought in Chungcheong Province, and the war sparked anti-Japanese sentiment among the former rebels. In July, 1,000 rebels wandered through various towns, building earthen fortresses in preparation for a Japanese invasion of Chungcheong. The rebels took weaponry from the governmental storages and trained themselves. In August, there was a small battle between the Northern and the Southern Jeob.

On 12 October, Choe Sihyeong ordered the Northern Jeob to revolt. The rebels of Northern Chungcheong organized under the Jeob and Po, and began active revolts.

There were more than a hundred battles that took place in Northern Chungcheong in this period. The Gwandong Po won against a Japanese battalion in the Battle of Goesan under the leadership of Sim Songhak. The rebels then reached Boeun, thus severing all direct roads between Seoul and Jeolla. The revolt flared even greater when Son Byong-hi joined the Northern Chungcheong rebels. Survivors among the Battle of Taein joined the rebels as well.

On 18 December, 2,600 rebel forces gathered in Jonggok. The rebels included the great Northern leader Son Byeonghui, whose family lived near Jonggok, and the patriarch of Donghak, Choe Sihyeong. Japanese sources report that the rebels were cooking meals when the Japanese attacked them. Because of the surprise attack, the rebels were not able to put up a suitable defense, leading to 2,500 rebels out of 2,600 being killed. (Some scholars prefer the term Jonggok Massacre.) Both Choe and Son survived, but fled towards the south. Minor skirmishes continued in this region until 28 December.[71]

The rebels of Cheonan, Hongseong, and northwestern Chungcheong were defeated in the Battle of Mount Seseong. This battle was also the key to Jeon Bong-jun's plan to capture Seoul.

In August, 1,500 rebels revolted in Cheonan, and took governmental weapons. After organizing their army in Mount Soto, the rebels camped in Mount Seseong with their newfound weaponry. Mount Seseong was more of a low hill, 22 meters high, defended by a low wall, which was in use since the Proto-Three Kingdoms Age. The rebel leaders were Kim Yongheui, Kim Hwaseong, Kim Seongji, Kim Bokyong, Kim Yeongu, and Won Keumok.

On 18 November, two Japanese platoons were located in the northern slopes, another platoon to the northeast, and another to the southeast. At dawn, the southeast platoon ambushed the rebels, who resisted for two hours, aided by their superior knowledge of the terrain. However, they were forced to retreat to the west, where they were ambushed again by the two northern platoons.[72]

370 rebels were killed, 770 were wounded, and 17 were captured. The rebels also lost 140 guns, 2 trumpets, 228 spears, 26,500 Chinese bullets, 30 flags, 226 sacks of rice, and 13 sacks of barley. Kim Bokyong was captured and executed on the spot, and the other leaders were executed on 24 and 27 November. The hill was known as Mount Siseong, meaning 'Mountain washed with blood'.[73]

Because Gyeonggi was very close to Seoul, rebel activities in Gyeonggi were few. The largest Gyeonggi rebel groups, numbering 1,000 rebels, were in Yicheon, Yeoju, Anseong, and other parts of Southeastern Gyeonggi. The Gyeonggi rebels retreated south to Chungcheong, joining the rebels of Northern Chungcheong. Most were killed in the Battle of Jonggok (see above).

Gangwon rebels can be divided into two groups: the rebels of Gangneung and the rebels of Hoengseong and Wonju. Rebels from Northern Chungcheong or Gyeonggi occasionally crossed into Wonju. Gangwon rebels were especially marked by guerrilla warfare.

In these regions, rebels would occupy Gangneung, then flee to mountainous locations such as Pyeongchang, then return to Gangneung.

In September, more than 1,000 rebels attacked Gangneung, which lacked defenses. The rebels gave one sack of rice to each peasant by taking the wealth of the rich, and built strongholds in most marketplaces. The rebels formed their own court, lowered taxes, and punished corrupt Yangban and rich Sangmin.

On 7 September, an anti-rebel battalion led by Yi Hoewon assaulted the sleeping rebels in the rainy dawn. 20 rebels were killed, and Yi's forces took 7 guns, 157 spears, and 2 horses. The rebels passed the Daegwanryeong Pass into Pyeongchang.

By late September, the rebels had reorganized and recaptured Gangneung. they also occupied Pyeongchang, Yeongweol, and Jeongseon. In response, the Japanese army sent Captain Ishimori against the Gangneung rebels on 3 November. On 5 November, 10,000 rebels had a two-hour-long battle against Ishimori's troops, but were ultimately defeated. The rebels fled to Jeongseon.

On 6 November, the governmental troops killed 10 rebels in Jeongseon and burned down 70 houses. The rebels again fled to Pyeongchang.

Ishimori fought against 3,000 rebels in Pyeongchang on 1 December 1894. The rebels scattered after an hour of battle. 70 rebels were instantly killed, 30 died from their wounds, and 10 prisoners were killed for attempted rebellion. The Gangneung rebels ceased to exist after this battle.

Rebels of these regions were mostly guerrillas in a mountainous terrain. The rebel leader was the legendary Cha Giseok, the Great Jeobju of the Gwandong Region. He led 1,000 rebels, who punished corrupt Yangban and collected taxes from merchants. It is said that Cha killed hundreds of Yangban.

On 13 October, Cha attacked Dongchang, where the taxes collected in Gangwon were brought to Seoul by boat. He burned down Dongchang and gave the taxes to the peasants. The magistrate of Hongcheon reports that after the destruction of Dongchang, more and more people joined Cha's army.

The government asked Maeng Yeongjae, a Confucian scholar, to conquer Cha's 'crowd of roving thieves'. Maeng, who was suppressing the rebels of Yicheon at the time, gladly obliged. On 21 October, Maeng and Cha battled in the Jangya Fields, in which more than 30 rebels were killed. The rebels fled to Seoseok, into a pass called 'Seonang Pass'. It was so named because there was an altar to the deity Seonangshin in the pass.

On 22 October, 2,000 rebels were killed in the consequent Battle of Jajak Pass, the largest battle in Gangwon Province before the Korean War. The rebels lacked guns, and they used birch branches as weapons. They also lacked pots, and cooked rice over cattle hide. Because of the narrowness of the pass, the rebels were crowded, and it was easy for Maeng's troops to fire into the camp and kill rebels. Maeng himself reports that "it was impossible to see how many died", but descendants have given an estimate of 1,800~2,000. Descendants also report that the battle continued for three or four days. The Seonang Pass was renamed Jajak Pass, because the blood made a 'Jajak' sound as it rolled down the pass.

On 26 October, the survivors, including Cha, regathered. On 11 November, they began the Battle of Mount Odae, in which Maeng's soldiers surrounded Mount Odae and began to climb it and defeat the rebels inside. 100 rebels were killed, and 40 houses were burned. Cha was captured on 14 November, and beheaded for treason in Chuncheon.

In 1893, the Joseon Dynasty banned gold mining in Hwanghae Province. Although Hwanghae leaders, such as Kim Gu the 'Baby Jeobju' (Kim Gu was eighteen at the time, compared to the 40-year-old Jeon Bong-jun or the 32-year-old Son Byong-hi), were believers in Donghak, most of the rebels were gold miners. Lieutenant Suzuku classified Hwanghae rebels in three ways:

1. True Donghak, "who mutter incantations and believe that their faith shall cure diseases, bring wealth, and lengthen life"
2. Temporary Donghak, "who do not believe the teachings... but join the Donghak religion"
3. False Donghak, "those... who hate foreigners... are suppressed by local magistrates, suffer from inflation, or can no longer mine for gold. Most are gold miners, and that is because... gold mining was banned last year, and... they no longer have money, and they wish for revenge".[74]

Haeju was one of the two provincial capitals to fall to the rebels (the other being Jeonju). The defeat of the Haeju rebels are documented in Lieutenant Suzuku's Conquest of the Donghak of Hwaghae.

By 27 November, the rebels had captured most of the Hwanghae coast, including Haeju, without a major battle. However, in the dawn of 27 November 400 rebels camped on Pyeongsan were assaulted by governmental forces, and fled south to Nucheon. Knowing that the Japanese and the government troops were chasing them, they hurriedly fled Nucheon as well. Suzuku captured many Donghak food supplies in Nucheon, including "hundreds of sacks of millet".[74]

On 29 November, Suzuku captured the town of Gajichon. However, there were no men in Gajichon. When the women of Gajichon were interrogated, they revealed that all grown men had been ordered to go to the town of Onjeong. Suzuku's soldiers burned four sacks of rice cakes in Gajichon.

The Japanese reached Onjeong, only to find it empty. The magistrate of Onjeong said that the rebels had never come, and that they were to go to Haeju, rather than Onjeong. Haeju, too, was completely empty. The governor of Hwanghae said that "every town outside of Haeju is full of thieves... two-thirds of all towns in Hwanghae are full of the Donghak raiders".[74]

With the guidance of the officials of Haeju, the Japanese defeated hundreds of rebels in the hour-long Battle of Gohyeonjang, killing "tens of thieves".[74] They also captured and beheaded a number of rebels, and burned five houses.

Kim Gu and his rebels sought to reoccupy Haeju, and attacked Japanese scouts at 6:00 am of 2 December 1894. The battle continued until 8:00, when the rebels finally fled. Tens of rebels were again killed, and many were captured. From the captured rebels, Suzuku discovered a manifesto written by Choe Sihyeong, the Donghak patriarch. The manifesto proved that the Haeju rebels were under the command of Choe Sihyeong and the Northern Jeob leaders.

The rebels gathered in Cheongdan, 2.5 kilometers away from Haeju. 7,000 rebels were camped on the east and the south, and 400 were additionally hidden in the pine forests. 10,000 were camped 400 meters away, and 14,000 were camped a kilometer away. Because the rebels lacked rifles and other modern weaponry, they were crushed after three Japanese strikes. However, the rebels did not retreat. Because the Japanese also lacked ammunitions due to the large number of rebels, they finally directly charged at the rebels. Although the rebels only had old-fashioned muskets, the superior numbers of the rebels wore out the Japanese soldiers. The rebels fled, and were chased for 600 meters. Minor skirmishes continued until January 1895, and Kim Gu hid in the house of An Taehun, a Catholic and the father of An Junggeun, until 1896.[74]

Pyongan Province had little rebel activity. It suffered extreme casualties in the First Sino-Japanese War, especially at the Battle of Pyongyang. There were occasional reports of rebels killing magistrates or attacking Japanese support lines, but such instances were rare. Also, there were only two Jeobju for all of Pyongan, compared with seven for Hwanghae and Gyeonggi, ten for Gangwon, seventeen for Chungcheong, nineteen for Gyeongsang, and twenty-five for Jeolla.[4]

There were minor incidents of rebellions in Hamgyong:

My grandfather died at thirty-nine. Our home was Haunseung Village, Suha Township in Dancheon County. There and in Samsu, my grandfather caused a Donghak rebellion. But [he was defeated] and fled to a village called Neuteulgol where slash-and-burners lived. He hid in a potato container, but two Japanese soldiers opened the lid and ordered him to come out. So he suicided by splitting his stomach open with a dagger. [75]

There is an ongoing controversy about the naming of the revolution, connected to the exact role that the Donghak religion played in the revolution. Theories include:

1. The revolution was fundamentally based on the Donghak religion, and should thus be called the 'Donghak Rebellion' or the 'Donghak Revolution'. This argument is based on that every pre-1922 source called the rebellion 'Donghak Rebellion', and on that every major leader was a Jeobju or Poju. This was the stance made by South Korea when it was ruled under a military junta.[83][84]
2. The revolution was fundamentally based on the peasants who were suppressed by the government, and should thus be called the 'Peasant Rebellion of 1894', the 'Peasant Revolution of 1894', or the 'Peasant War of 1894'. This argument is based on Jeon Bong-jun's testimony: "There were many angered peasants and few Donghak". This is the official stance made by North Korea.[83]
3. The rebel leaders were Donghak believers, but the actual armies were aggravated peasants, and should thus be called the 'Donghak Peasant Revolution', 'Donghak Peasant Rebellion', 'Donghak Peasant War', or the 'Donghak Peasant Movement'. Jeon said on his testimony: "Our leaders were Donghak, but the army were peasants". This is the current South Korean position.[83]

The role played by King Gojong's father, the Great Regent Heungseon, is open to controversy. Jeon Bong-jun first met Heungseon in 1890 in Unhyeon Palace. Jeon actually lived with the Great Regent Heungseon from 1890 to 1892, and revisited him in February 1893.[85] In the meeting, Jeon said to the Heungseon: "I wish to die for the country and the people".[85] There were many rumours that the Heungseon had secretly caused the rebellion in this meeting.

It is also said that the Heungseon (or occasionally Gojong himself) sent a messenger to Jeon after the Jeonju Truce, asking him to drive out the Japanese. This has not been confirmed. For evidence, the message of Mikhail Hitrovo, the Russian envoy to Japan who sent his message to the Russian envoy to Korea a month before the start of the revolution, is often cited:

[The Great Regent] is planning for a great riot as its leader, which will begin in summer or autumn. Already, the leaders are buying weapons from China and Japan, and 4,000 rifles have already been bought. A few are from Japan, and a few Japanese have joined this scheme, of which the Japanese government knows nothing about.

Great Regent Heungseon in 1869

In A History of Donghak, Oh Jiyeong claims that the Great Regent attempted a massacre of pro-Japanese politicians in August 1894, simultaneous with the time when Jeon had planned an attack on Seoul.[54]

During his execution, Kim Gae-nam testified that Jeon had been secretly meeting the Great Regent Heungseon. However, the other four leaders refused to connect the Great Regent with the revolution.[86]

The Japanese historian Seito argued that the Donghak Peasant Revolution had been backed by a Samurai group named Genyōsha, who landed in Busan on 27 June 1894.[87] The claim is however heavily contended by Korean historians.

Seito's account is generally regarded as pseudohistorical by Korean historians. Jeon only had 20 followers in the beginning of the Gobu Revolt, compared with 600 in Seito's account. Also, Seito's list of battles and Jeon Bong-jun's account in the Jeon Bong-jun Gongcho are different. Additionally, Seito records that an alliance of rebels and Genyosha defeated governmental forces from June to August, in which Jeon would be installing Jibgangso agencies. However, certain Korean historians such as Yi Yihwa and Japanese historians generally regard Saito's account to be partially valid, especially as there were a large body of Japanese soldiers in Korea at the time.

In The Founding of Cheondoism, it is recorded that two Japanese men named Danaka Jiro and Dakeda Hanshi and their fifteen followers, holding dynamite, gave Jeon a gold watch and a horse, and had a council with Jeon, which was done not with translation but by using written sentences (both knew Chinese characters). The Japanese asked Jeon to ally with Japan and drive out China to make Korea truly independent. Later in 1895, Danaka attempted to free the imprisoned Jeon and take him to Japan, but Jeon refused, calling Japan "my enemy" and saying "It is not my purpose to seek my petty life through the hands of an enemy". He also said that "I am your enemy and you are my enemy".[88] However, Jeon also asked the Genyosha to attempt to protect the rebels from execution.

The Great Regent Heungseon is known to have hired ronin, or former Samurai, in order to kill political enemies. It has also been speculated that it were Genyosha members who killed Empress Myeongseong, the last queen of Korea.[17]

The Donghak Peasant Revolution gave way for various folk songs. The most famous is the Oh Bird, Oh Bird, Oh Roller (the 'roller' being mentioned is the oriental dollarbird).

Oh bird, oh bird, oh roller

Do not sit in the Nokdu fields

For when the Nokdu flower falls

The jelly seller weeps.

Oh bird, oh bird, oh roller

Why did you come out

For the pine and bamboo leaves are green

We thought it was summer

But it is freezing with snow.[7]

In this song, the 'roller' are the Japanese soldiers (who wore blue uniforms). The 'Nokdu fields' is Jeon Bong-jun, and 'when the Nokdu flower falls' is the execution of Jeon Bong-jun. The 'jelly seller' are the peasants of Korea. 'Summer' refers to the Hucheon, the Donghak concept of Paradise, and 'winter' refers to the persecution of the rebels. 'Why did you come out' refers to the anger of the peasants at foreign intervention. This song is sung all over Korea, and seems to have been first sung at the execution of Jeon. There are many versions of this song, with different lyrics.[41]

Another song was sung in September, at the revolution's zenith, but was soon forgotten after the fall of the rebels. This is in contrast to the Oh Bird, Oh Bird, Oh Roller above.

Gabose gabose

Eulmijeok georida

Byeongshin doemyeon

Byeongshin nanda

This is a word play. The first line, 'Gabo', can mean both 'Let us go' and '1894'. 'Eulmi' refers to 'slow' and '1895', and 'Byeongshin' refers to 'Destruction' and '1896'. This song's literal meaning is 'Let us go in 1894, for if we do not win by 1895, we shall be destroyed by 1896.'

The Dosol Cliff Buddha has been connected to Son Hwa-jung and the rebels, and the legend surrounding it appears in the 1940 History of Donghak, meaning that the legend was already existent at the time. It is one of the few legends relating to the Donghak Peasant Revolution.[89]

In 1820, a few days after Yi Seogu became governor of Jeolla, Yi went south to Seonun Temple, Mujang, and see what was inside the navel of the Stone Buddha of Dosol Cliff. But as he was opening the navel, thunder struck, and he could not read the parchment inside, but had to seal the navel again. He had only read the first line: "Yi Seogu, governor of Jeolla, will read this." No one dared read the parchment, for they feared the thunder.

In August 1893, in the Jeob of Jeongeub, there were words about the parchment of the Buddha. son Hwajung said he would like to read it, if only for the thunder. Then, the believer Oh Hayeong said that they should not worry about the lightning: "I hear that when such parchments are hidden, the hider casts spells of lightning so that people cannot read it. I do not think anything will happen. The lightning spell will already have been cast when Yi Seogu attempted to open the seal, and the spell will have been gone. We must open it when it is time, and I shall take all responsibility."

So they gathered thousands of coils of ropes and hundreds of hammers and crushed the navel of the Buddha and took out the parchment inside. They had imprisoned the Buddhists in fear of intervention, and they reported the Donghak believers to the government. That day, the magistrate of Mujang captured hundreds of Donghak believers, with Gang Gyeongjun, Oh Jiyeong, and Go Yeongsuk at their head. The magistrate of Mujang ordered the Donghak believers to hand over the parchment and reveal the location of Son Hwajung. They were beat and flogged until their bodies were hunks of flesh. But the parchment was with Son Hwajung to the north, as were the other leaders, and after ten days of torture, the three leaders were executed for murder and thievery and the others were flogged and sent away.[54][90]

Later stories claim that the parchment in question was a secret guideline on revolutions that was written by Jeong Yakyong, a Silhak scholar, and that Jeon Bong-jun modeled the revolution after the book. Others claim that the parchment's destiny was to bring the downfall of the Joseon Dynasty.[17]

The current Dosol Cliff Buddha has a squarely shaped hole in place of the navel.

Fly High Run Far, a 1991 South Korean film directed by Im Kwon-taek, tells about the Revolution.

Nokdu Flower, a historical drama of SBS in 2019, directed and written by Shin Kyung-soo, Jung Hyun-Min, tell about Baek Yi-kang (this is an unreal character in history) join in Donghak Peasant Revolution.