EPR (nuclear reactor)

The EPR is a third generation pressurised water reactor design. It has been designed and developed mainly by Framatome (part of Areva between 2001 and 2017) and Électricité de France (EDF) in France, and by Siemens in Germany. In Europe this reactor design was called European Pressurised Reactor, and the internationalised name was Evolutionary Power Reactor, but is now simply named EPR.

Computer generated view of an EPR power station
Reactor pressure vessel of the EPR

The first operational EPR unit was China's Taishan 1, which started commercial operation in December 2018.[1] Taishan 2 started commercial operation in September 2019.[2] European units have been so far plagued with prolonged construction delays and substantial cost overruns. The first EPR unit to start construction, at Olkiluoto in Finland, originally intended to be commissioned in 2009, started commercial operation in 2023, a delay of fourteen years.[3] The second EPR unit to start construction, at Flamanville in France, is also facing a decade-long delay in its commissioning (from 2013 to 2024).[4] Two units at Hinkley Point in the United Kingdom received final approval in September 2016; the first unit is expected to begin operating in 2027.[5][6]

EDF has acknowledged severe difficulties in building the EPR design. In September 2015, EDF stated that the design of a "New Model" EPR (later named EPR2) was being worked on and that it would be easier and cheaper to build.[7]

Design

First EPR design

The main objectives of the third generation EPR design are increased safety while providing enhanced economic competitiveness through improvements to previous pressurised water reactor designs scaled up to an electrical power output of around 1650 MWe (net)[8] with thermal power of 4500 MW. The reactor can use 5% enriched uranium oxide fuel, reprocessed uranium fuel or 100% mixed uranium plutonium oxide fuel, clad in Areva's M5 variant of zirconium alloy.[9][10] The EPR is the evolutionary descendant of the Framatome N4 and Siemens Power Generation Division "Konvoi" reactors.[11][12] Siemens ceased its nuclear activities in 2011.[13] The EPR was designed to use uranium more efficiently than older Generation II reactors, using approximately 17% less uranium per kilowatt-hour of electricity generated than these older reactor technologies.[14]

The design has gone through a number of iterations. The 1994 conceptual design had a power output of 1450 MWe, the same as the Framatome N4, but using Siemens Konvoi derived instrumentation and also including a new core catcher safety system. By 1995, there was concern over excessive cost per MW, and output was raised to 1800 MWe in the 1997 design, though this was subsequently reduced to 1650 MWe (net) in the final certified design,[15] for a mains frequency of 50 Hz. It has 4 coolant loops with 1 steam generator per loop. There are concrete walls between loops and the hot and cold parts of each loop to protect against failures. Besides the double layer containment there is a concrete wall surrounding the primary system components inside the containment.[16]

The EPR design has several active and passive protection measures against accidents:

  • Four independent emergency cooling systems, each providing the required cooling of the decay heat that continues for 1 to 3 years after the reactor's initial shutdown (i.e., 300% redundancy)[17]
  • Leak-tight containment around the reactor
  • An extra container and cooling area if a molten core manages to escape the reactor (see containment building and core catcher)
  • Two-layer concrete wall with a total thickness of 2.6 m, designed to withstand impact by aeroplanes and internal overpressure, and a low vacuum in the annulus space between the two layers[18]

The EPR has a design maximum core damage frequency of 6.1 × 10−7 per station per year[19] and a gross power output of 1770 MWe for a mains frequency of 50 Hz.[16] The version submitted to the U.S. NRC has a power output of 1600 MWe (net).[20]

EPR2 design

A floor plan of the EPR2 reactor building (right). It has a single-wall prestressed concrete containment structure with a metal liner and fewer angled walls[21]

In 2013, EDF acknowledged the difficulties it was having building the EPR design, with its head of production and engineering, Hervé Machenaud, saying EDF had lost its dominant international position in design and construction of nuclear power stations. Machenaud indicated EDF was considering designing two new lower powered reactors, one with output of 1500 MWe and the other 1000 MWe. Machenaud stated there would be a period of reflection on the best way to improve the EPR design to lower its price and incorporate post-Fukushima safety improvements.[22]

In September 2015, EDF's chief executive Jean-Bernard Lévy stated that the design of a "New Model" EPR, or "EPR2",[23] was being worked on, which would be easier to build, and be ready for orders from about 2020,[7] describing it in 2016 as "a reactor offering the same characteristics as today’s EPR but it will be cheaper to build with optimised construction times and costs".[24]

In 2016, EDF planned to build two new model EPR reactors in France by 2030 to prepare for renewing its fleet of older reactors.[25] However, following financial difficulties at Areva and its merger with EDF, French Ecology Minister Nicolas Hulot said in January 2018, "for now [building a new model EPR] is neither a priority or a plan. Right now the priority is to develop renewable energy and to reduce the share of nuclear."[26] The industry-government plan for 2019–2022 included work on "a new version of the EPR".[27]

In July 2019, the French nuclear safety authority ASN issued an opinion on the safety of an outlined new EPR model (EPR2) design. It found that general safety was on the whole satisfactory, though identifying areas for further examination. The most notable simplification is a single layer containment building with a liner as opposed to the EPR's double layer with a liner. ASN highlighted that the EPR design basis assumption that primary and secondary cooling circuit piping would not fail may no longer be appropriate for the simplified EPR2, and requires additional safety demonstrations.[28][29] Another simplification is that, unlike the first EPR design, the EPR2 design does not allow access to the reactor building for maintenance during reactor operation, which simplifies the design of the reactor building.[30]

In 2020, French Energy Minister Élisabeth Borne announced the French government would not decide on the construction of any new reactors until the much delayed Flamanville 3 started operation after 2022. EDF had estimated that building six EPR2 nuclear reactors would cost at least €46 billion.[31] A Court of Audit report concluded that EDF is no longer able to finance EPR2 construction on its own, so financing and profitability issues need to be resolved.[32] The audit office requires that EDF ensure the financing and profitability of EPR2 before constructing any in France.[33]

In January 2022, junior environment minister Bérangère Abba said that plans for new EPR2 reactors, to be operational between 2035 and 2037, should be submitted around 2023.[34] The decision was accelerated by the impact of the 2021 global energy crisis.[35] In June 2023, EDF announced it was starting the authorisation process to build two EPR2 reactors at Penly Nuclear Power Plant.[36]

The EPR2 requires 250 types of pipes instead of 400 for the EPR, 571 valves instead of 13,300 valves for the EPR, and 100 types of doors instead of 1700 in the EPR. The EPR2 also uses more prefabricated components, and the electrical buildings can be completely prefabricated. The fourth emergency/safety cooling system/train of the reactor is removed which means maintenance can only be performed then the plant is shut down. This train was added at the request of German electricians in the original EPR design to allow for on-power maintenance. The core catcher has been modified.[21][37][38][39] It has a net power output of 1670 MWe.[40]

EPR1200 design

A smaller variant of the EPR2 is being developed using three instead of four coolant loops generating 1200 MWe net, the EPR1200, intended for export. In February 2023, regulator ASN issued a positive opinion on the safety features of the EPR1200.[41]

Operational plants

Olkiluoto 3 (Finland)

Olkiluoto 3 under construction in 2009. It achieved first criticality in December 2021[42] and started regular electricity production in April 2023.[3]

Construction of the Olkiluoto 3[43] power station in Finland began in August 2005.[3] The station has an electrical power output of 1600 MWe (net).[8] The construction was a joint effort of French Areva and German Siemens AG through their common subsidiary Areva NP, for Finnish operator TVO. Siemens ceased nuclear activities in 2011. Initial cost estimates were about €3.7 billion,[44] but the project has since seen several severe cost increases and delays, with latest published cost estimates (from 2012) of more than €8 billion.[45] The station was initially scheduled to go online in 2009.[46]

In May 2006, construction delays of about one year were announced, following quality control problems across the construction. In part, the delays were due to the lack of oversight of subcontractors inexperienced in nuclear construction.[47][48] The delays led to disappointing financial results for Areva. It blamed delays on the Finnish approach to approving technical documentation and designs.[49][50]

In December 2006, TVO announced construction was about 18 months behind schedule so completion was now expected 2010–11, and there were reports that Areva was preparing to take a €500 million charge on its accounts for the delay.[51][52]

At the end of June 2007, it was reported that Säteilyturvakeskus (STUK), the Finnish Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, had found a number of safety-related design and manufacturing 'deficiencies'.[53] In August 2007, a further construction delay of up to a year was reported associated with construction problems in reinforcing the reactor building to withstand an aeroplane crash, and the timely supply of adequate documentation to the Finnish authorities.[54][55][56]

In September 2007, TVO reported the construction delay as "at least two years" and costs more than 25% over budget.[57] Cost estimates by analysts for the overrun range up to €1.5 billion.[58]

A further delay was announced in October 2008, making the total delay three years, giving an expected online date of 2012.[59] The parties entered into arbitration to resolve a dispute over responsibility for the delays and final cost overruns.[60][61] Areva settled the long-running dispute in 2018 by agreeing to pay €450 million for cost overruns and delays.[62]

As of May 2009, the station was at least three and a half years behind schedule and more than 50 percent over-budget. Areva and the utility involved "are in bitter dispute over who will bear the cost overruns and there is a real risk now that the utility will default".[63] In August 2009, Areva announced €550 million additional provisions for the build, taking station costs to €5.3 billion, and wiped out interim operating profits for the first half-year of 2009.[64]

The dome of the containment structure was topped out in September 2009.[65] 90% of procurement, 80% of engineering works and 73% of civil works were completed.[66]

In June 2010, Areva announced €400 million of further provisions, taking the cost overrun to €2.7 billion. The timescale slipped from June 2012 to the end of 2012.[67][68][69] In December 2011, TVO announced a further delay to August 2014.[70] As of July 2012, the station was scheduled to start electricity production no earlier than 2015, a schedule slippage of at least six years.[71] In December 2012 Areva's Chief Executive estimated costs to €8 billion.[72]

In September 2014, Areva announced that operations would start in 2018.[73] In October 2017, the date was pushed back to the spring of 2019.[74] During testing between 2018 and 2021, multiple further delays were announced, of around three years in total.[75][76][77][78][79][80]

Olkiluoto 3 achieved first criticality in December 2021.[42] Grid connection took place in March 2022.[81] In May 2022, foreign material was found in the turbine steam reheater, and the plant was shut down for about three months of repair work. Regular production had been expected to begin in December 2022, after a test production phase.[82] On 28 October 2022, it was announced cracks of a few centimetres had been found in all four of the feedwater pump impellers. The cause of the cracks was yet to be determined, and it was unclear how the commissioning schedule would be affected.[83] The feedwater pumps are larger than in other nuclear reactors.[84]

Olkiluoto 3 started regular electricity production in April 2023.[3]

Taishan 1 and 2 (China)

In 2006, Areva took part in the first bidding process for the construction of four new nuclear reactors in China, together with Toshiba-owned Westinghouse and Russian Atomstroyexport.[85] However Areva lost this bid in favour of Westinghouse's AP1000 reactors, in part because of Areva's refusal to transfer the expertise and knowledge to China.

Subsequently, Areva managed to win a deal in February 2007, worth about €8 billion ($10.5 billion) for two EPRs located in Taishan, Guangdong Province in southern China, in spite of sticking to its previous conditions.[86][87] The General Contractor and Operator is the China General Nuclear Power Group (CGN).

The construction of the first reactor at Taishan started officially on 18 November 2009, and the second on 15 April 2010.[88] Construction of each unit was then planned to take 46 months, significantly faster and cheaper than the first two EPRs in Finland and France.[89]

The reactor pressure vessel of the first reactor was installed in June 2012,[90] and the second in November 2014. The first pressure vessel had been imported from Mitsubishi Heavy Industries in Japan, and steam generators from Areva in France. The second pressure vessel and associated steam generators had been made in China, by Dongfang Electric and Shanghai Electric.[91]

In 2014, construction was reported to be running over two years late, mainly due to key component delays and project management issues.[92]

Cold function tests were performed on Taishan 1 in February 2016, with start up expected in the first half of 2017. Taishan 2 was scheduled to start up later that year.[93] However, commissioning dates were put back six months in February 2017, with commercial operation expected in the second half of 2017 and the first half of 2018.[94]

In December 2017, Hong Kong media reported that a component had cracked during testing, needing to be replaced.[95] In January 2018, commissioning was rescheduled again, with commercial operation expected in 2018 and 2019.[96]

In June 2018, Taishan 1 achieved criticality for the first time.[97] On June 29, 2018, Taishan 1 was connected to the grid.[98][99] It entered commercial operation in December 2018.[1][100] Taishan 2 reached these milestones in May 2019[101] June 2019[102] and September 2019,[2] respectively.

The Taishan project is led by Taishan Nuclear Power Joint Venture Co. (TNPJVC), a joint venture founded by CGN (51% ownership stake), EDF (30%), and Chinese utility Guangdong Energy Group (19%), also known as Yuedian.[103]

Companies involved in supplying equipment to Taishan Unit 1 include Framatome, which manufactured the steam generators and pressurizer in France, and China’s Dongfang Electric Corp. (DEC), which manufactured the Arabelle turbine in the engine room.[104] That turbine was designed and licensed by General Electric. Other equipment suppliers for Unit 1 include Mitsubishi (reactor vessel); Škoda, a Czech company (core internals); and France’s Jeumont Electric, which along with DEC provided primary pumps.

In April 2020, Framatome signed a long-term service contract with TNPJVC to support operations of the two EPRs. This contract covers nuclear plant outage and maintenance work, including spare parts supply and engineering services for eight years.[105]

In June 2021, higher than expected concentrations of radioactive gases were detected in the primary circuit of unit 1. This was later attributed to faulty fuel cladding.[106][107] The reactor was taken offline in July 2021 and restarted in August 2022.[108]

Plants under construction

Flamanville 3 (France)

EDF has said its Flamanville 3 project (seen here in 2010) will be delayed until 2024.[4]

First concrete was poured for the demonstration EPR reactor at the Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant on 6 December 2007.[109] As the name implies, this will be the third nuclear reactor on the Flamanville site, and the second instance of an EPR being built. Electrical output will be 1630 MWe (net).[8] The project was planned to involve around €3.3 billion of capital expenditure from EDF.[110]

From 19 October 2005 to 18 February 2006, the project was submitted to a national public debate. On 4 May 2006, the decision was made by EDF's Board of Directors to continue with the construction. Between 15 June and 31 July 2006, the unit underwent a public enquiry, which rendered a "favourable opinion" on the project.[111] That summer, site preparation works began.

In December 2007, construction of the unit itself began. This was expected to last 54 months, with commissioning planned for 2012.[110]

In April 2008, the French nuclear safety authority (Autorité de sûreté nucléaire, ASN) reported that a quarter of the welds inspected in the secondary containment steel liner are not in accordance with norms, and that cracks have been found in the concrete base. EDF stated that progress was being made on these issues, which were raised very early in construction;[112] however, on 21 May, ASN ordered a suspension of concrete pouring on the site.[113] A month later, concreting work resumed after ASN accepted EDF's corrective action plan, which included external oversight checks.[114]

In May 2009, Stephen Thomas reported that after 18 months of construction, and after a series of quality control problems, the project is "more than 20 percent over budget and EDF is struggling to keep it on schedule".[63]

In August 2010, the regulator, ASN, reported further welding problems on the secondary containment steel liner.[115] The same month, EDF announced that costs had increased 50% to €5 billion, and commissioning was delayed by about two years to 2014.[115]

In July 2011, EDF announced that the estimated costs had escalated to €6 billion, and that completion of construction was delayed to 2016.[116]

In December 2012, EDF announced that the estimated costs had escalated to €8.5 billion.[117] Also in December 2012, the Italian power company Enel announced it was relinquishing its 12.5% stake in the project, and five future EPRs, so would be reimbursed its project stake of €613 million, plus interest.[118][119]

In November 2014, EDF announced that completion of construction was delayed to 2017, due to delays in component delivery by Areva.[120]

In April 2015, Areva informed the French nuclear regulator ASN that anomalies had been detected in the reactor vessel steel, causing "lower than expected mechanical toughness values". Further tests are underway.[121] In July 2015 The Daily Telegraph reported that Areva had been aware of this problem since 2006.[122] In June 2015, multiple faults in cooling system safety valves were discovered by ASN.[123] In September 2015, EDF announced that the estimated costs had escalated to €10.5 billion, and the start-up of the reactor was delayed to the fourth quarter of 2018.[124]

In April 2016, ASN announced that additional weak spots had been found in the reactor steel, and Areva and EDF responded that new tests would be conducted, though construction work would continue.[125]

In February 2017, the Financial Times stated the project was six years late, and €7.2 billion over budget,[126] while renewed delays in the construction of the EPR-reactors at Taishan Nuclear Power Plant prompted EDF to state that Flamanville 3 remains on schedule to start operations by the end of 2018, assuming it receives regulatory approval.[127] In June 2017, the French regulator issued a provisional ruling that Flamanville 3 is safe to start.[128]

The discovery of quality deviations in the welding led to a further revision of the schedule in July 2018. Fuel loading was delayed until the end of 2019, and the cost estimate was increased from €10.5 billion to €10.9 billion.[129]

In June 2019, nuclear regulator ASN determined that eight welds in steam transfer pipes passing through the two wall containment, that EDF had hoped to repair after startup, must be repaired before the reactor is commissioned.[130][131] By then, estimated costs were €11 billion.[132]

In October 2019, EDF announced that because of this issue costs would increase to €12.4 billion and that fuel loading would be delayed until the end of 2022.[132][133] Pierre Moscovici, president of the Court of Audit, gave a statement on 9 July 2020 concerning the release of the report on the delay costs of the Flamanville 3. The report of the Court of Audit revealed that the costs could reach €19.1 billion instead of €12.4 billion when taking into account the additional charges due to the delay in construction.[134]

In January 2022, it was announced that more time was needed for the repair of faulty welds and the solving of other issues.[135][136][132] In December 2022, EDF announced a further delay of at least six months with an estimated cost increase of €500 million due to more work to establish a new process for the stress relieving heat treatment of some welds close to sensitive equipment. Fuel loading is now forecast for early 2024. Estimated total costs increased to €13.2 billion.[4]

Hinkley Point C (United Kingdom)

Hinkley Point C is a nuclear power station under construction with two EPR reactors and an electrical output of 3,200 MWe in Somerset, England.

The EPR underwent Generic Design Assessment by the Office for Nuclear Regulation, along with the Westinghouse AP1000.[137] Interim Design Acceptance Confirmations were postponed until lessons from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster had been taken into account.[138] EDF bought British Energy in 2009. EDF planned to build 4 new EPRs,[139] subject to electricity pricing agreement with the government.[140][141] Areva has signed a strategic partnership with Rolls-Royce to support the build of EPRs.[142] On 19 March 2013, the Development Consent Order granting planning permission for Hinkley Point C was given,[143] but negotiations with the UK government about electricity pricing, and project financing with private investors, still needed to be concluded.[144]

On 21 October 2013, EDF Energy announced that an agreement had been reached regarding the nuclear stations to be built on the site of Hinkley Point C. EDF Group and the UK Government agreed on the key commercial terms of the investment contract. The final investment decision was conditional on completion of the remaining key steps, including the agreement of the European Commission.

On 8 October 2014, the European Commission announced their agreement, with 16 out of 28 commissioners agreeing with the go ahead of the construction. On 21 September 2015, the British government announced it would provide a £2 billion support package for Hinkley Point C as Britain's first nuclear power station in 20 years.[145]

On 21 October 2015, during Chinese president Xi Jinping's state visit to the United Kingdom, EDF and CGN signed an investment agreement for the £18 billion (€21.3 billion) project to build two reactors at Hinkley Point.[146][147]

In June 2016, EDF managers told Members of Parliament that the Hinkley Point C proposal should be postponed, until it has "solved a litany of problems", including EDF's "soaring debts".[148] On 28 July 2016, after the resignation of a board member, the EDF board approved the final investment decision for the project.[149] However Greg Clark, the new Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy in the new government of Theresa May, then announced that the government would not sign the contract over the next few days as expected, but delay the contract to autumn to "consider carefully all the component parts of this project".[150] Final government approval was given in September 2016.[5]

In July 2017, following an internal review, EDF announced revised estimates for the scheme, which included at least £1.5 billion of additional costs and up to 15 months of additional programme, leading to updated total cost estimates of £19.6–20.3 billion.[151][152][153] In September 2019 cost estimates were revised again, to be between £21.5 and £22.5 billion,[154] and again in January 2021 to £2223 billion, with an expected operational start date of June 2026.[155]

In May 2022 cost estimates were revised again, to be between £25 and £26 billion (€29.630.7 billion). The plant is now estimated to start generating electricity in June 2027.[6]

Possible future power stations

France

In July 2008, the French President announced a second EPR would be built in France due to high oil and gas prices.[156] Penly was chosen as the site in 2009, with construction planned to start in 2012.[157] However, in 2011, following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, EDF postponed public consultations.[158] In February 2013, the Minister of Industrial Renewal Arnaud Montebourg stated that the plans for a new EPR reactor at Penly had been cancelled, citing the capacity for electricity production and massive investments in renewable energy along with his confidence in the EPR as a competitive project in foreign countries.[159][160]

Plans to build new reactors in France were later revived. Penly and Gravelines are among the candidates for the installation of a pair of EPR reactors.[161]

In October 2019, newspaper Le Monde reported that the French government had sent EDF a "mission letter" in which it asked the company to prepare to build a total of six EPR reactors across three sites in the next 15 years.[162] A government decision on the construction of new reactors was not expected until after 2022.[31] EDF has submitted a proposal to build six EPR2s for around €50 billion.[163] In February 2022, French president Emmanuel Macron announced that France would in fact build six new EPR2 reactors, the first to be commissioned by 2035, and with an option for eight more.[164][165]

In June 2023, EDF announced it was starting the authorisation process to build two EPR2 reactors at Penly Nuclear Power Plant, anticipating that site preparatory work would begin in summer 2024 and construction would start about 2027.[36]

India

In February 2009, the Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL) signed a memorandum of understanding with Areva to set up two EPR reactors at Jaitapur in Maharashtra. This was followed by a framework agreement in December 2010.[166]

In January 2016, during French president François Hollande's state visit to India a joint statement with Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi was issued. According to the statement the two leaders "have agreed on a roadmap of cooperation to speed up discussions on the Jaitapur project".[167]

In March 2018, an Industrial Way Forward Agreement between EDF and NPCIL was signed, with an objective of producing a tender for six reactors.[168][169]

In April 2021, EDF submitted to NPCIL an offer to develop six EPR reactors at the Jaitapur site, with a combined installed capacity of 9.6 GWe.[170]

United Kingdom

Two EPR units at Sizewell, Suffolk are in the planning phase.[171] In May 2020, EDF Energy applied for a development consent order.[172] If the project goes ahead electricity production is expected to start in 2031 at the earliest.[173]

Two further EPR units have been proposed for construction at the Moorside site near Sellafield, Cumbria, as part of a future clean energy hub that would also incorporate modular reactors, renewable energy generation, hydrogen production and battery storage technologies.[174]

Czech Republic

In October 2012, Czech utility company ČEZ announced that Areva was eliminated from a tender for the construction of two reactors for Temelín nuclear plant. Areva failed to comply with legal requirements of the tender.[175] In April 2014, ČEZ cancelled the tender, because of low power prices and the government's refusal to support a minimum guaranteed energy price.[176]

In June 2021, the Czech Ministry of Industry and Trade invited EDF, along with Westinghouse and Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power to participate in a pre-qualification round for a new unit at the Dukovany Nuclear Power Station.[177] EDF is proposing a 1200 MWe version of the EPR for the project, named the EPR-1200.[178]

Kazakhstan

The EPR-1200 is one of four potential nuclear reactors Kazakhstan is considering for its second nuclear power plant.[179]

Unsuccessful proposals

Canada

EPR was considered for the two (possible expansion to four) reactor addition to the Darlington Nuclear Generating Station in Ontario, Canada. However, the official bids had to include all contingencies, and Areva failed to enter a final bid meeting these requirements. The project was ultimately abandoned when the only bid, made by Canada's AECL, came in at well over $10/Wp.[180]

EPR was briefly considered for an installation in New Brunswick, replacing or supplanting that province's single CANDU 6. These plans lasted only from June 2010 until an election two months later, when the plan immediately disappeared from further study.[181]

Finland

In 2010, the Finnish parliament decided to allow two new reactors. Both TVO and Fennovoima were considering the EPR.[182][183] In December 2013, Fennovoima confirmed it had selected a Russian AES-2006 VVER pressurised water reactor in preference to the EPR.[184] In May 2022, after significant delays in the design and licensing phase of the project and in light of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Fennovoima cancelled the contract with Rosatom to build the power plant.[185]

Italy

On 24 February 2009, Italy and France agreed to study the feasibility of building 4 new nuclear power stations in Italy.[186] Following this, on 3 August 2009, EDF and Enel established a joint venture, Sviluppo Nucleare Italia, to study the feasibility of building at least four EPRs.[187]

However, in the 2011 referendum, soon after the Fukushima nuclear disaster, Italians voted to repeal the new regulations permitting nuclear power in Italy. Abrogation of laws is put in effect when at least 50%+1 electors make a valid vote and a majority of these voters are in favour of abrogation. In this referendum, there was a 55% valid voter turnout and 94% voted to abrogate the new regulations.

United Arab Emirates

In March 2008, French president Nicolas Sarkozy reached an agreement with the UAE cabinet that "outlines a cooperation framework for the assessment and possible use of nuclear energy for peaceful ends". This agreement was not a contract for EPR construction by any of the French nuclear companies, Total S.A., Suez or Areva.[188]

In May 2009, US President Barack Obama signed a similar agreement with the UAE. Contracts for reactors were not given, nor was there any guarantee made that US companies would receive them.[189]

In December 2009, the United Arab Emirates declined both the American and French bids and awarded a contract for construction of four non-EPR stations (APR-1400) to a South Korean group including Korea Electric Power Corporation, Hyundai Engineering and Construction, Samsung and Doosan Heavy Industries.[190]

After losing this order, Areva considered whether it should reintroduce the marketing of a smaller and simpler second-generation reactor design alongside the EPR, for countries that are new to nuclear power.[191] As of 2011 Areva and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries offer a smaller 1100 MWe ATMEA1 Generation III PWR.[192]

United States

The US-EPR, the version of the EPR submitted to the U.S. regulator,[193] is one of the competitors for the next generation of nuclear stations in the United States, along with the AP1000 and the ESBWR. In February 2015, Areva asked to suspend the Design Certification Application Review process at the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC).[193] It had been under review there with expectation to submit an application for final design approval and standard design certification since 14 December 2007.[194] UniStar, Amarillo Power, PPL Corp and AmerenUE announced plans to file a Combined Construction and Operating License application in 2008 for the US-EPR at its Callaway station. UniStar filed a partial application in July 2007 for a proposed third unit at the Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant in Maryland. However, both proposals were subsequently cancelled.

In April 2009, Missouri legislators balked at preconstruction rate increases, prompting AmerenUE to suspend plans for its reactor.[195] In July 2010, Constellation Energy Group cut spending on UniStar for the Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Station because of uncertainties for a loan guarantee from the U.S. Department of Energy,[196][197] and subsequently pulled out of the project.[198] In October 2008, Areva announced that it would partner with US defense firm Northrop Grumman to establish a $380 million facility to construct modules and assemblies for the EPR and US-EPR reactors at Northrop Grumman's Newport News Shipyard in Virginia.[199][200] The project was suspended indefinitely in May 2011.[201]

Poland

In October 2021, EDF made an offer to Poland to build four or six EPR reactors across two to three sites. The combined installed capacity of the reactors would be either 6.6 or 9.9 GWe.[202]

In October 2022, Poland selected Westinghouse's AP1000 design, with construction of the first three-unit plant expected to start in 2026.[203]

See also

Other Generation III+ designs:

References

  1. "First EPR enters commercial operation". World Nuclear News. 14 December 2018. Retrieved 16 December 2018.
  2. "World's second EPR starts operations". World Nuclear News. 9 September 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
  3. "Regular electricity production has started at Olkiluoto 3 EPR". TVO. 16 April 2023. Retrieved 16 April 2023.
  4. "Further delay to Flamanville EPR start up". World Nuclear News. 19 December 2022. Retrieved 20 December 2022.
  5. Rowena Mason; Simon Goodley (15 September 2016). "Hinkley Point C nuclear power station gets government green light". The Guardian. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
  6. "Hinkley Point C delayed by a year as cost goes up by £3bn". BBC News. 20 May 2022. Retrieved 22 May 2022.
  7. Geert De Clercq (23 September 2015). "Only China wants to invest in Britain's new £2bn Hinkley Point nuclear station because no one else thinks it will work, EDF admits". The Independent. Retrieved 24 September 2015.
  8. "New Build Field Report" (PDF). Areva. 6 October 2010. p. 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 May 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
  9. Step 3 Fuel Design Assessment of the EDF and Areva UK EPR (PDF) (Report). HSE Nuclear Directorate. 2009. AR 09/041-P. Retrieved 16 June 2021.
  10. Garner, G.L.; Mardon, J.P. (9 May 2011). "Alloy M5 cladding performance update". Nuclear Engineering International. Retrieved 16 June 2021.
  11. Andrew Teller (2 February 2010). "The EPR Reactor: Evolution to Gen III+ based on proven technology" (PDF). Areva. Retrieved 19 July 2010.
  12. "EPR – Areva brochure" (PDF). Areva NP. May 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 November 2007. Retrieved 2 January 2008.
  13. Borrud, Gabriel. "Siemens to quit nuclear industry". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  14. Forsythe, Jan (2009). 3 R's of Nuclear Power: Reading, Recycling, and Reprocessing: ...Making a Better Tomorrow for Little Joe. AuthorHouse. p. 126. ISBN 978-1-4389-6731-8.
  15. Thomas, Steve (November 2010). The EPR in Crisis (PDF) (Report). University of Greenwich. Retrieved 6 December 2019.
  16. https://aris.iaea.org/PDF/EPR.pdf
  17. A. Shirzadi; S. Jackson (30 July 2014). Structural Alloys for Power Plants: Operational Challenges and High-Temperature Materials. Elsevier Science. pp. 94–. ISBN 978-0-85709-755-2.
  18. https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML0522/ML052280176.pdf
  19. EPR Level 1 Probabilistic Safety Assessment. Author: UK EPR.
  20. https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML0522/ML052280170.pdf
  21. https://www.debatpublic.fr/sites/default/files/2022-10/PenlyEPR-DMO-EDF-RTE.pdf
  22. "EDF eyes development of new, smaller reactors - papers". Reuters. 21 March 2013. Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  23. "EPR: showcasing French nuclear expertise". EDF. Retrieved 17 July 2019.
  24. "Interview Jean-Bernard Lévy, CEO EDF: "Our Future Lies in Combination Nuclear and Renewables"". the energycollective. 18 October 2016. Retrieved 7 November 2016.
  25. "EDF plans two new nuclear reactors in France by 2030-document". Reuters. 21 January 2016. Retrieved 7 February 2018.
  26. "UPDATE 1-Separate unit for EDF nuclear arm has been discussed, says minister Hulot". Reuters. 22 January 2018. Retrieved 7 February 2018.
  27. "French nuclear industry sets medium-term plans". World Nuclear News. 28 January 2019. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
  28. Geert De Clercq (18 July 2019). "French regulator to EDF: don't assume new reactor model is accident-proof". Reuters. Retrieved 11 September 2019.
  29. "ASN issues its opinion on the safety options for the EPR New model reactor and its EPR 2 upgrade". ASN. 29 July 2019. Retrieved 11 September 2019.
  30. "L'EPR 2, la garantie d'une électricité bas carbone" [The EPR 2 for a low-carbon electricity]. Revue Générale Nucléaire (in French). 2020. ISSN 0335-5004. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
  31. "France to decide on new nuclear build after 2022". Nuclear Engineering International. 14 January 2020. Retrieved 19 February 2020.
  32. "French auditor calls for financing guarantee for future EPR projects". World Nuclear News. 15 July 2020. Retrieved 16 July 2020.
  33. "EDF sees progress in plan to reinvigorate French industry". World Nuclear News. 16 October 2020. Retrieved 16 October 2020.
  34. GV De Clercq (6 January 2022). "France sees new nuclear reactors going online by 2035-37 - minister". Reuters. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
  35. Kar-Gupta, Sudip (9 November 2021). "Macron says France will build new nuclear energy reactors". Reuters. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
  36. "EDF begins permitting process for two new reactors at Penly". World Nuclear News. 30 June 2023. Retrieved 1 July 2023.
  37. https://www.usinenouvelle.com/article/edf-a-un-plan-pour-construire-de-nouveaux-epr-2-en-france-et-il-passe-par-un-appel-d-offres.N828460
  38. https://www.sfen.org/rgn/excell-le-plan-dexcellence-de-la-filiere-porte-ses-fruits/
  39. https://www.asn.fr/content/download/164741/file_1/Saisine%20au%20GPR%20DOS%20EPRNM.pdf
  40. https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:51108114
  41. "French regulator supports safety options for EPR1200". World Nuclear News. 2 February 2023. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
  42. "Europe's first EPR reaches criticality". World Nuclear News. 21 December 2021. Retrieved 21 December 2021.
  43. "OLKILUOTO 3 PROJECT by AREVA". Archived from the original on 10 February 2007. Retrieved 24 July 2006.
  44. "EPR IN FINLAND: FOUNDATION STONE-LAYING DAY AT OLKILUOTO 3". de.framatome-anp.com. 18 October 2006. Archived from the original on 18 October 2006. Retrieved 11 August 2019.
  45. HT (21 November 2013). "Daily: Olkiluoto 3 may cost over €8bn". www.helsinkitimes.fi. Retrieved 4 December 2018.
  46. "Olkiluoto 3 "Chronology of the Project"". ol3.areva-np.com. 27 September 2007. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 11 August 2019.
  47. "Regulator reports as OL3 delays reach one year". Nuclear Engineering International. 19 July 2006. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
  48. "Concrete composition delays Finland's Olkiluoto 3". Nuclear Engineering International. 9 May 2006. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
  49. "Areva's first half results hit by Olkiluoto 3 delays". Nuclear Engineering International. 27 September 2007. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 11 August 2019.
  50. "European Pressurised Reactor at Olkiluoto 3, Finland – Brief & Interim Review of the Porosity and Durability Properties of the in Situ Cast Concrete at the Olkiluoto EPR Construction Site" (PDF). Large and Associates. 8 June 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 11 August 2019.
  51. "Finland nuclear reactor delayed again". MSN.com. 4 December 2006. Archived from the original on 8 March 2007.
  52. "Areva to take 500 mln eur charge for Finnish reactor delay". Forbes.com. 5 December 2006. Archived from the original on 3 June 2011. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
  53. "Nuclear industry revival hits roadblocks". New Scientist. 1 July 2007. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
  54. "Dates revised again for Olkiluoto 3". World Nuclear News. 10 August 2007. Retrieved 11 August 2019.
  55. Anastvatz (11 August 2007). "Nuclear industry's flagship plant delayed again". HULIQ. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
  56. Hollinger, Peggy (11 August 2007). "Areva delay threatens China contract". Financial Times. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
  57. Alan Katz (5 September 2007). "Nuclear Bid to Rival Coal Chilled by Flaws, Delay in Finland". Bloomberg. Retrieved 17 June 2008.
  58. Areva-Siemens sees Olkiluoto 3 reactor operational in summer 2011, CNN, 31 December 2007.
  59. "3-year delay expected at Finnish nuclear plant". International Herald Tribune. 17 October 2008. Retrieved 17 October 2008.
  60. Peggy Hollinger (16 October 2008). "Areva in talks with TVO over EPR delays". Financial Times. Retrieved 17 October 2008.
  61. Suoninen, Sakari (31 December 2008). "Finland nuclear reactor costs headed to arbitration – TVO". Reuters. Retrieved 5 January 2009.
  62. Forsell, Tuomas (11 March 2018). "France's Areva to pay $554 million to settle Finnish reactor dispute". Reuters. Retrieved 16 April 2023.
  63. "U.K. Expert Says U.S. Is Not LOSING International Nuclear Power 'Race'". Salem-News. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
  64. Peggy Hollinger (31 August 2009). "Finnish reactor provisions hit Areva profits". Financial Times. Retrieved 1 September 2009.
  65. "Olkiluoto 3: EPR dome installed". AREVA NC. 6 August 2009. Retrieved 1 November 2009.
  66. "AREVA – Olkiluoto 3 : EPR dome installed". YouTube. 10 August 2008. Archived from the original on 11 September 2010. Retrieved 29 November 2009.
  67. Dorothy Kosich (29 June 2010). "S&P downgrades French nuclear-uranium giant AREVA on weakened profitability". Mineweb. Archived from the original on 4 October 2011. Retrieved 6 July 2010.
  68. De Beaupuy, François (24 June 2010). "Areva's Overruns at Finnish Nuclear Station Approach Initial Cost with operation set to start in 2013". Bloomberg Businessweek. Archived from the original on 7 September 2010.
  69. "Start-up of Finnish EPR pushed back to 2013". World Nuclear News. 8 June 2010. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  70. Ando, Ritsuko (21 December 2011). "Finland's Olkiluoto 3 reactor delayed to August 2014". Reuters. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 21 December 2011.
  71. "Olkiluoto 3 delayed beyond 2014". World Nuclear News. 17 July 2012. Retrieved 31 July 2012.
  72. "Costs of Finland's Olkiluoto nuclear reactor go up yet again". Nuclear-news. 14 December 2012. Retrieved 6 September 2013.
  73. "Olkiluoto 3 startup pushed back to 2018". World Nuclear News. 1 September 2014. Retrieved 1 September 2014.
  74. "Finland's 10-Year Wait for a Nuclear Reactor Just Got Longer". Bloomberg. 9 October 2017. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2017.
  75. "Start-up of Finnish EPR put back four months". World Nuclear News. 14 June 2018. Retrieved 15 June 2018.
  76. "New delay in start-up of Finnish EPR". World Nuclear News. 29 November 2018. Retrieved 3 December 2018.
  77. "Olkiluoto faces further delay to July 2020". World Nuclear News. 18 July 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
  78. "System tests further delay Finnish EPR start-up". World Nuclear News. 19 December 2019. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
  79. "OL3 EPR regular production of electricity starts in February 2022". TVO. 28 August 2020. Retrieved 28 August 2020.
  80. "Ongoing turbine works further delay Olkiluoto 3 start-up". World Nuclear News. 23 August 2021. Retrieved 24 August 2021.
  81. "The Olkiluoto 3 EPR plant unit's electricity production has started". TVO. 12 March 2022. Retrieved 1 May 2022.
  82. "Test operation of Finnish EPR resumes". World Nuclear News. 9 August 2022. Retrieved 6 September 2022.
  83. "Cracks found in all four OL3 feedwater pumps". World Nuclear News. 28 October 2022. Retrieved 31 October 2022.
  84. "Investigation of damage continues at OL3". Nuclear Engineering International. 1 November 2022. Retrieved 8 November 2022.
  85. "Foreign energy giants bid for China's nuclear contracts". People's Daily. 12 September 2004. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
  86. "Areva lands world's biggest ever nuclear power order". World Nuclear News. 26 November 2007. Archived from the original on 13 April 2013. Retrieved 4 February 2020.
  87. "Signing of Areva EPR order in China delayed – French source". Forbes. 30 July 2007. Archived from the original on 15 December 2008. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
  88. "China, People's Republic of: Nuclear Power Reactors". PRIS database. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Archived from the original on 20 June 2010. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
  89. Patel, Tara; François de Beaupuy (24 November 2010). "China Builds Nuclear Reactor for 40% Less Than Cost in France, Areva Says". Bloomberg. Retrieved 2 December 2010.
  90. "China: The Construction of the EPR reactor Unit 1 at Taishan Takes a Major Step Forward with the Installation of the Vessel". AREVA. 5 June 2012. Retrieved 5 June 2012.
  91. "Construction milestone at Taishan 2 EPR". World Nuclear News. 5 November 2014. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
  92. Steve Kidd (23 February 2015). "How serious are the delays in China's nuclear programme?". Nuclear Engineering International. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
  93. "First Taishan EPR completes cold tests". World Nuclear News. 1 February 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
  94. "China revises commissioning dates of EPRs". World Nuclear News. 22 February 2017. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
  95. "Tests reveal crack in key component of Chinese nuclear power plant, 130 km west of Hong Kong". Hong Kong Free Press. FactWire. 12 December 2017. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
  96. "Taishan schedule factors in commissioning tests". World Nuclear News. 2 January 2018. Retrieved 3 January 2018.
  97. "First criticality achieved at Chinese EPR". World Nuclear News. 7 June 2018. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
  98. "Taishan 1, world's first EPR connected to the grid". EDF Energy. Retrieved 30 June 2018.
  99. "China's Taishan 1 reactor connected to grid". www.world-nuclear-news.org. 29 June 2018. Retrieved 5 July 2018.
  100. "Bernard Fontana's statement - EPR: the first Generation III+ nuclear reactor enters commercial operation". Framatome. 14 December 2018. Retrieved 16 December 2018.
  101. "Second Chinese EPR achieves criticality - World Nuclear News". World Nuclear News. 29 May 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
  102. Taishan 2, PRIS IAEA
  103. POWER (1 November 2019). "Evolution of Nuclear Power Continues with Operation of First EPR". POWER Magazine. Retrieved 15 April 2020.
  104. "Framatome- Large projects - Taishan 1 and 2". www.framatome.com. Retrieved 15 April 2020.
  105. "Framatome signs long-term service contract to support operation at Taishan EPRs in China". www.framatome.com. Retrieved 15 April 2020.
  106. "Fuel failure confirmed at Taishan 1". World Nuclear News. 16 June 2021. Retrieved 14 July 2021.
  107. "CGN takes Taishan 1 offline following fuel failure". World Nuclear News. 30 July 2021. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
  108. "Chinese EPR resumes power supply after extended outage". World Nuclear News. 17 August 2022.
  109. Nuclear Engineering International. Flamanville 3 concrete poured Archived 13 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  110. "EDF Official Site – Flamanville 3". Edf.fr. Archived from the original on 30 June 2009. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
  111. "Public inquiry commission favours plan to build Flamanville-3 EPR". Nucleonics Week. 5 October 2006. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 17 June 2008.
  112. Geoffrey Lean; Jonathan Owen (13 April 2008). "Defects found in nuclear reactor the French want to build in Britain". The Independent. London.
  113. "French nuke body partly halts work on new reactor". Reuters. 27 May 2008. Retrieved 27 May 2008.
  114. "EdF allowed to continue concreting". World Nuclear News. 20 June 2008.
  115. Tara Patel (30 August 2010). "French Nuclear Watchdog Says EDF Has Problems With Flamanville EPR Liner". Bloomberg.
  116. "EDF delays Flamanville 3 EPR project". Nuclear Engineering International. 20 July 2011. Retrieved 21 July 2011.
  117. "Le coût de l'EPR de Flamanville encore revu à la hausse". Le Monde. 3 December 2012.
  118. "Enel Drops Participation in Flamanville EPR as Project Costs Soar by $2.6B". POWER. 6 December 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2013.
  119. "Enel and Edf Terminate their cooperation on EPR in France". Enel. 4 December 2012.
  120. Michael Stothard (18 November 2014). "EDF in fresh delay for flagship nuclear plant". Financial Times.
  121. "Flamanville EPR vessel anomalies under scrutiny". World Nuclear News. 7 April 2015.
  122. Henry Samuel (9 July 2015). "Areva aware 'as early as 2006' of serious fault in nuclear reactor destined for UK". The Daily Telegraph.
  123. Henry Samuel (9 June 2015). "Faulty valves in new-generation EPR nuclear reactor pose meltdown risk, inspectors warn". The Daily Telegraph.
  124. "Flamanville EPR: optimised project management and a new timetable". EDF France. 3 September 2015.
  125. "EPRs to face more tests". Nuclear Engineering International. 12 April 2016.
  126. "Downfall of Toshiba, a nuclear industry titan". Financial Times. 14 February 2017.
  127. "EDF confirms Flamanville timetable after Taishan EPR delay". The Times of India. 22 February 2017.
  128. "French regulator says Flamanville 3 is safe to start". World Nuclear News. 28 June 2017.
  129. "EDF revises schedule, costs of Flamanville EPR". World Nuclear News. 25 July 2018.
  130. "Deviations on the Flamanville EPR steam lines: the eight penetration welds will have to be repaired". ASN. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
  131. "Weld repairs to delay Flamanville EPR start-up". World Nuclear News. 20 June 2019.
  132. Pierre Breteau, Visualisez en graphiques les multiples dérapages de l’EPR de Flamanville. Le Monde, update 13 Jan 2022
  133. "EDF warns of added costs of Flamanville EPR weld repairs". World Nuclear News. 10 October 2019.
  134. "" Echec opérationnel " et " dérive des coûts " : la gestion de l'EPR, réacteur nucléaire de troisième génération, décriée par la Cour de comptes". Le Monde.fr (in French). 9 July 2020.
  135. "Update on the Flamanville EPR". EDF France. 12 January 2022. Retrieved 12 January 2022.
  136. Boselli, Muriel (12 January 2022). "EDF delays Flamanville start-up to end 2023 on weld issue". Montel.
  137. "New Nuclear Power Stations – Progress so far". Health and Safety Executive. Archived from the original on 1 June 2009. Retrieved 15 September 2009.
  138. "News – Taking GDA work forward in the light of the unprecedented events in Japan". Hse.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 28 December 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
  139. This website was built by the EDF Energy WCM. "Nuclear Generation". Edfenergy.com. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
  140. Declan Lynch (18 April 2013). "EdF still undecided about Hinkley Point C go-ahead". New Civil Engineer. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
  141. Andrew Trotman (18 April 2013). "EDF prepared to let UK nuclear talks fail". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
  142. "Areva signs up Rolls-Royce for EPR". Nuclear Engineering International. 11 March 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
  143. "New nuclear power plant at Hinkley Point C is approved". BBC. 20 March 2013. Retrieved 30 July 2016.
  144. Dave Harvey (19 March 2013). "What price nuclear power? The final hurdle for Hinkley". BBC. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
  145. "UK guarantees £2bn China nuclear deal". BBC News. 21 September 2015. Retrieved 11 August 2019.
  146. Farrell, Sean; Macalister, Terry (21 October 2015). "Work to begin on Hinkley Point reactor within weeks after China deal signed". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 11 August 2019.
  147. Terry Macalister (9 March 2016). "No legally binding contract in £18bn Hinkley Point nuclear project". The Guardian. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
  148. Terry Macalister, "Hinkley Point should be postponed", The Guardian, 18 June 2016.
  149. Graham Ruddick (28 July 2016). "Hinkley Point C in doubt after British government delays approval". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 July 2016.
  150. Emily Gosden (28 July 2016). "Government delays Hinkley nuclear decision despite EDF approval for £18bn project". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
  151. "EDF warns Hinkley Point could cost extra £1.5bn". Financial Times. 3 July 2017. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
  152. "Hinkley nuclear plant already £1.5bn over budget, EDF admits". Global Construction Review. 3 July 2017. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
  153. Ambrose, Jillian (3 July 2017). "Cost of Hinkley Point nuclear plant climbs another £1.5bn to over £20bn, as project faces further delay". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 17 September 2018.
  154. "Hinkley Point C cost rises by nearly 15%". World Nuclear News. 25 September 2019. Retrieved 10 October 2019.
  155. "Hinkley Point C nuclear plant to open later at greater cost". BBC News. 27 January 2021. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
  156. "Second new reactor for France". World Nuclear News. 3 July 2008. Retrieved 3 July 2008.
  157. "AREVA pleased with the announcement of the construction of France's second EPR™". www.sa.areva.com. 30 January 2009. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
  158. "France says Penly reactor on course despite delays". Reuters. 4 October 2011. Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 5 October 2011.
  159. "Pas d'EPR à la centrale de Penly" [No EPR at the Penly power plant]. BFM Business (in French). 25 April 2013. Retrieved 9 March 2017.
  160. "Montebourg enterre l'EPR de Penly" [Montebourg buries the Penly EPR]. normandie.canalblog.com (in French). 3 March 2013. Retrieved 9 March 2017.
  161. Beuve, Jean-Pierre (6 March 2019). "La Normandie prête à accueillir un nouveau réacteur EPR" [Normandy ready to welcome a new EPR reactor]. Le Point (in French). Retrieved 12 August 2019.
  162. "France asks EDF to prepare to build 6 EPR reactors in 15 years -Le Monde". Reuters. 14 October 2019. Retrieved 19 October 2019.
  163. "France expects new nuclear reactors to begin operation in 2035-37".
  164. "France to build up to 14 new nuclear reactors by 2050, says Macron". Guardian. 10 February 2022.
  165. "Macron commits to at least six new EPRs by 2050".
  166. India, France ink pact for Areva reactors, fuel Archived 27 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine npcil.nic.in
  167. "Jaitapur agreement due by year-end". World Nuclear News. 25 January 2016. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
  168. "Way forward agreed for Jaitapur reactors". World Nuclear News. 12 March 2018. Retrieved 27 June 2018.
  169. "EDF and GE sign strategic deal for six EPRs in India". World Nuclear News. 27 June 2018. Retrieved 27 June 2018.
  170. "EDF submits offer for Jaitapur project". World Nuclear News. 23 April 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
  171. "EDF Energy expects 20% cost saving for Sizewell C". World Nuclear News. 18 January 2018. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
  172. "EDF Energy submits plans for Sizewell C". World Nuclear News. 27 May 2020. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
  173. Gosden, Emily (20 October 2017). "Sizewell C nuclear power to come on stream in 2031". The Times. No. 72367. p. 42. ISSN 0140-0460.
  174. "Nuclear at heart of proposed Moorside clean energy hub". 30 June 2020.
  175. Sidlova, Tereza (5 October 2012). "CEZ excludes Areva from Temelin expansion tender". Aktuálně.cz.
  176. "UPDATE 4-CEZ scraps tender to expand Temelin nuclear power plant". Reuters. 10 April 2014. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
  177. "ČEZ begins 'security assessment' of Dukovany bidders". World Nuclear News. 22 June 2021. Retrieved 23 July 2021.
  178. "CEZ applies for a zoning decision for a new Dukovany unit". Nuclear Engineering International. 3 June 2021. Retrieved 23 July 2021.
  179. "Kazakhstan continues discussions with EDF". World Nuclear News. 27 January 2023. Retrieved 27 January 2023.
  180. "CANDU at Darlington: Securing Jobs and Energy for the new Economy" (PDF). February 2012.
  181. "New Brunswick deals with Areva". www.world-nuclear-news.org. 9 July 2010. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
  182. "TVO Plant type alternatives". Tvo.fi. Archived from the original on 22 April 2012. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
  183. "Current | Fennovoima signed technical development agreements with Areva and Toshiba | Current | Fennovoima Oy". Fennovoima.com. 20 December 2010. Archived from the original on 20 March 2012. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
  184. "Finland's Fennovoima signs reactor deal with Rosatom". Reuters. 21 December 2013. Archived from the original on 12 January 2014. Retrieved 12 January 2014.
  185. "Fennovoima cancels Hanhikivi 1 contract with Russia". World Nuclear News. 3 May 2022. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
  186. "Italy and France pen nuclear deal". BBC. 24 February 2009. Retrieved 24 February 2009.
  187. Selina Williams; Liam Moloney (4 August 2009). "Enel, EDF to Build Nuclear Plants in Italy". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
  188. Bowman, Joel (8 March 2010). "UAE endorses France nuclear deal". ArabianBusiness.com. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
  189. Landler, Mark (21 May 2009). "Despite Torture Video, U.S. and Emirates Sign Key Pact". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
  190. Andrew England; Peggy Hollinger; Song Jung-a. "S. Koreans win $20B UAE nuclear power contract". Financial Times. CNN. Archived from the original on 14 January 2010.
  191. Peggy Hollinger (15 January 2010). "Areva considers producing cheaper reactors". Financial Times. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
  192. Tara Patel (19 January 2011). "French Atmea Would Make Reactor 'Credible' Export, GDF Suez Says". Bloomberg. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  193. "US EPR plans suspended". World Nuclear News. 6 March 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2015.
  194. "Design Certification Application Review – U.S. EPR". Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Retrieved 3 July 2008.
  195. Terry Ganey. AmerenUE pulls plug on project Columbia Daily Tribune, 23 April 2009.
  196. Peter Behr (30 July 2010). "A Late Scramble to Fund 'Nuclear Renaissance' Kick-Start". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
  197. "Constellation Energy cuts spending on Areva reactor venture". McClatchy-Tribune Information Services. TradingMarkets. 29 July 2010. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
  198. Peggy Hollinger (19 October 2010). "Energy: Cooling ambitions". Financial Times. Retrieved 29 October 2010.
  199. "Dedicated nuclear component factory". World Nuclear News. 24 October 2008. Retrieved 31 January 2009.
  200. Sonal Patel (1 December 2008). "AREVA inches closer to U.S. EPR construction". POWER. Retrieved 31 January 2009.
  201. "Areva Halts Construction of Virginia Reactor Component Plant – Nuclear Power Industry News – Nuclear Power Industry News – Nuclear Street – Nuclear Power Portal". Nuclear Street. 11 May 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
  202. "France makes nuclear offer to Poland". World Nuclear News. 14 October 2021. Retrieved 19 October 2021.
  203. "Poland picks U.S. offer for its first nuclear power plant, prime minister says". Reuters. 29 October 2022.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.