Fatimid art

Bab al-Futuh gate built by Fatimid vazir Badr al-Jamali

Illuminated manuscripts and codex books were common in the Fatimid Dynasty, but this was not the only way that text was used. Public text took the form of large inscriptions on the side of outdoor monuments or buildings. For example, inscriptions were added to the Al-Hakim Mosque in 1002-03 CE. In order for pedestrians to read the inscriptions, they were done in a floriated Kufic script style, which was easily legible.[10] In some cases, the inscriptions were meant to establish the legitimacy of the Fatimid dynasty. For example, the Cairo Bab al-Nasr, or Gate of Victory, had the names of Ali and Muhammad, the two religious leaders from which the Fatimid leaders traced their right to rule. These two names were also inscribed on the Aqmar Mosque. In other cases, verses from the Qur’an that mentioned the ahl-bayt, or " the people of the house" were inscribed on public buildings. The phrase ahl-bayt makes a connection to Ali, again emphasizing the legitimacy of rule.[11]

Folio from the Blue Quran, Gold and silver leaf on indigo-dyed parchment, Raqqada National Museum of Islamic Art

The Fatimid caliphate, ruling Egypt from 969 to 1171, was based in what is today’s Tunisia in the early tenth century. The caliphs were known for their generous patronage of artworks for extravagant ceremonies. Unfortunately, very few manuscripts and buildings survived to explicate the sudden artistic flourish. The only extant architectural monument from the early Fatimid period is a mosque in al-Mahdiyya, Tunisia. Although little is known about Fatimid manuscripts, one of the most recognizable Islamic manuscripts, the Blue Quran, has been attributed by Jonathan Bloom to tenth-century Tunisia under the Fatimid patronage.[15]

The Blue Quran was originally composed of 600 leaves, each measuring 30 cm x 40 cm. Only thirty-seven pages are extant but scattered across the world.[16] Each horizontal indigo parchment leaf is marked by fifteen lines of gold Kufic script that are of the same length; ends of the verses are decorated with silver medallions, besides which there are no additional ornamentations.[17]

The Blue Quran is notable for its intense blue color that has lasted for thousands of years. Most scholars have concluded that the parchment was dyed indigo.[17] Cheryl Porter, an expert in Islamic book conservation, pointed out that dyeing parchment was next to impossible as it would leave the parchment freckled. Through experimentation, Joan Wright, a paper conservator at the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, was able to recreate an even indigo color of similar shade of the Blue Quran on parchment by simply rubbing the color onto it.[17]

Besides the fantastic color, the gold script is another prominent feature of this book. Alain George of University of Edinburgh claimed that the script had been written with gold powder as an ink pigment, a technique called chrysography.[18] Chrysography was commonly practiced for Christian manuscripts and described in Islamic texts. Later, a microscopic examination by Joan Wright revealed that gold leaf was used instead of gold powder. The calligrapher was more likely to first write the text with a pen charged with transparent adhesive, apply gold leaf, and then brush off the fragments that didn’t stick to the page. Scholars also have noticed that the script is outlined in dark brown ink. Since the dark brown color sometimes partially covers the gold, it is reasonably to assume that outlining is the final step that was possibly used to “neaten” the feathery edges of the gold leaf, and to give the manuscript a more clean and crisp finish.[17]

While the extraordinary color scheme has mesmerized viewers for centuries, its significance remains elusive. The combination of blue and gold would not have been unfamiliar to the artist or the patron of the Blue Quran. Lapis lazuli, a deep-blue semi-precious stone often containing “gold” specks, was mined in Afghanistan and used for Ancient Greek jewelry; the interior of the Dome of the Rock is decorated with gold mosaic inscriptions against dark blue backgrounds. Alain George argued that the contrast of the gold text and the dark blue background had “a resonance of light over darkness.”[19] The Blue Quran, like many other Quranic scripts, was not only read but also probably seen by worshippers in both candlelight and natural light. Thus, light played an important role in understanding the color scheme of the book. The effect of the gold leaf would have been more glimmering in an intense source of light, visually accentuating the power of Allah's words to shine light into darkness.[19]

There is an ongoing debate about the origin and time period of the Blue Quran. Jonathan Bloom placed the production of the book in Tunisia during the early Fatimid period mainly based on the abjad numbering system in the book; whereas Alain George attributed the book to eighth or ninth century Baghdad under the Abbasid Caliphate.[19][17] George's attribution stemmed from the script style. As plausible as the attributions are, scholars still lack strong evidence to anchor the book's origin and time period.

Fatimid Qur'an Manuscript

One example of a manuscript from the Fatimid period is the first volume of a two-part Quranic manuscript. It was copied by al-Husayn ibn Abdallah and is estimated to have been produced in Cairo, Egypt in 1028, made with valuable materials such as gold, color, and ink on paper. The calligraphy is highly decorative and colorful, and has borders with gold geometric and naturalistic designs. In 1062, a connection between Fatimid and Yemeni rulers was made in order to strengthen religious and political power, as well as to gain access trade routes to the Indian Ocean and Red Sea. This manuscript was exchanged in order for the Fatimid Caliph al-Mustansir bi’llah to demonstrate his wealth, and political and religious power to the Yemeni ruler Ali al-Sulayhi. Therefore, the manuscript ended up in Sana’a, Yemen, and most likely stayed there until Yemen was conquered by the Ottomans in the 6th century, when it was taken to Bursa, Turkey. It was placed in the tomb of the Ottoman sultan Murad I, and then was put in the Museum of Islamic Endowments in 1913.

This Qur’anic manuscript represents how trade and political activity led to the dispersion of manuscripts across multiple counties and governments. With this example, it is easier to understand the difficulty of locating Fatimid book materials and why so few remain intact and identifiable.[20]

A gold Quran case, now housed in the Aga Khan Museum, is placed in 11th-century Egypt under the Fatimid reign. Measuring 4.7 x 3.9 cm, it used to hold a miniature Quran.[21] A loop attached to the upper right side of the case suggests that it was worn by its owner as an accessory and a talisman. The entire case is made of gold. The technique employed is called "rope and grain filigree," which was a common one used for Fatimid jewelry. Filigree is an ornamental work of twisting and bending metal wires ("ropes") into intricate patterns. The combination of gold filigree with beaded granulation ("grain") creates an almost sculptural effect, thus giving the surfaces of the case a three-dimensional quality. The use of gold and elaborate patterns convey the patron's wealth and their utmost worship for the Quran. The Quran case is likely the only of its kind. The scarcity could be due to the fact that gold as a precious metal was often melt and repurposed. Therefore, many pieces of older Fatimid jewelry no longer exist today.[22]

Besides elaborately decorated books, government documents are valuable sources that could offer us profound insight into the polities of Medieval Middle East. There has been a widespread misconception that few extant documents originated from the Middle East before 1500 in comparison to those from Medieval Europe. Scholars have been inclined to characterize the polities of Medieval Middle East either as indifferent or despotic. Both situations would explain the scarcity of official documents as they were unnecessary. Large amount Fatimid documents discovered in the Cairo Geniza challenge this widely-accepted yet false notion.[23] Cairo Geniza refers to the attic in the Ben Ezra Synagogue in which the documents were stored. In the geniza collections, 1600 Fatimid state documents have been discovered so far. The largest geniza collection at Cambridge houses more state documents that are yet to be studied. The state documents included petitions to sovereigns, memoranda to high-ranking officials, fiscal records, taxes receipts, accounts, ledgers, and decrees.[23] The comprehensiveness and abundance of the documents allow scholars to re-construct the statecraft of the Fatimid Caliphate that probably situated between the two extreme types of polities - indifference and authoritarianism.

block-printed Fatimid talismanic scroll, 11th Century, Metropolitan Museum of Art

The type of documents that were found in the most abundance at the synagogue is state decrees. Almost all the decrees are fragmentary while other documents are intact. The fragmented decrees were originally long, vertical scrolls (rotuli) with wide spacing between words. The pieces appear to have been be cut deliberately, suggesting that the decrees in the scroll format were not meant to be archived. Most of the Fatimid fragments have Hebrew texts, such as liturgical poetry and Biblical paragraphs written in margins. The juxtaposition of Fatimid decrees and Hebrew script indicates that the documents were most likely to be recycled as scrap papers by cantors working at the synagogue. The original scrolls probably served as not only edicts but also as performative props to impress lower-ranking officials. Once they had accomplished their duties, they were discarded. Due to their performative nature, cantors might have chosen the decree scrolls purposefully for religious performances, such as poetry or Bible recitations.[23]

Because examples of manuscripts from the Fatimid period are rare, other examples of writing from the Fatimid period can be used to learn about writing and stylistic techniques. One such example is a talismanic scroll from the 11th century, printed using a block-printing technique tarsh. The symbol on the top of the scroll was known as a “Solomon's Scroll”, or a six-point star. The rest of the scroll was filled with text in a Kufic script that contained Quranic verses, incantations, and prayers. Because these scrolls were a single sheet of paper and not a manuscript, they were kept in amulet boxes. In order to fit in the boxes, they were rolled up and therefore had to be smaller; this particular example is 23 cm tall and 8.4 cm wide.[24] Due to the tarsh technique, these scrolls were monochromatic. Although these scrolls were not manuscripts, they represent devotional literature in the early Islamic world, and were born from a pilgrimage culture of piety and devotion.[25]