Gracile capuchin monkey

Philip Hershkovitz and William Charles Osman Hill published taxonomies of the capuchin monkeys in 1949 and 1960, respectively.[1] These taxonomies established four species of capuchin monkey in the genus Cebus. One of those species, Cebus apella, is a robust capuchin and is now included in the genus Sapajus. The other three Cebus species included in that taxonomy were the gracile capuchin species Cebus albifrons, Cebus nigrivittatus and the type species Cebus capucinus.[3] Cebus nigrivittatus was subsequently renamed Cebus olivaceus.[3][10] Cebus kaapori had been considered a subspecies of C. olivaceus but Groves (2001 and 2005) and Silva (2001) regarded it as a separate species.[11]

Some gracile capuchins are known to use tools. These include white-headed capuchins rubbing secretions from leaves over their bodies, using leaves as gloves when rubbing fruit or caterpillar secretions and using tools as a probe.[1][13] White-fronted capuchins have been observed using leaves as a cup to drink water.[13]

Intrasexual selection, or male-male competition, occurs when males invoke contests in order to gain the opportunity to reproduce with a female and maximize their reproductive success.[14] Often males are adorned with weaponry, which can be used in order to increase their chances of winning contests for possible mates.[15] In the genus Cebus, there is a large amount of dimorphism in canine size between males and females.[15] Canines are hypothesized to be larger in males because canine dimorphism is generally correlated to male-male competition.[15] In the wedge-capped capuchin there is a larger amount of canine dimorphism compared to the white-faced capuchin and the white-fronted capuchin.[15] The difference in canine dimorphism between these species can be correlated to the differences in social structure of these three groups. The alpha male of the wedge-capped capuchin tends to monopolize mating, therefore engaging in more male-male competition, while in the white-faced capuchin and in the white-fronted capuchin the alpha male does not monopolize mating and allows subordinate males to mate with females.[15] While not much is known about the Kaapori capuchin, due to its low population size, it is likely it would possess more canine dimorphism, like the wedge-capped capuchin, because of its similar social structure with a monopolizing alpha male and peripheral subordinate males.[16]

If a female is presented an opportunity to copulate with a male she will evaluate both the costs and benefits of that male. Females can obtain direct benefits from males she mates with, where the female gains an instant benefit from the male to herself.[17] Direct benefits that would apply to females of the genus Cebus would include; vigilance from males,[18] protection from predators and conspecifics,[17] and increased resources.[19] Females can also benefit indirectly from males, in the form of phenotypic and genotypic benefits to her offspring[20] as well as male protection of those offspring.[17] Alpha males are more fit, and therefore more likely, to provide direct and indirect benefits to the female compared to other subordinate males.[17] In the white-faced capuchin the alpha male fathers 70-90% of the offspring produced by females in his group.[17] It is hypothesized that females are mating with alpha males while they are ovulating and then mating with subordinate males after they are no longer conceptive.[17] Some female primates, like in the white-fronted capuchin, will mate will subordinate males while they are no longer conceptive in order to decrease the amount of resource competition and increase the amount of male protection for her offspring.[18]

Capuchin infants are born in an altricial state, which means they need a lot of parental care in order to survive.[21] The majority of parental care in the genus Cebus is provided by the mother, but in the case of the wedge-capped capuchin, parental care is also provided by other conspecific females; this type of care is referred to as allomaternal care.[21] In the wedge-capped capuchin, the mother will provide the infant care for the first three months, however for the next three months the infant relies on the care of other females.[21] In agreement with kin selection theory, kin of the mother are more likely to provide care to the infant compared to other females in the group; siblings were four times as likely to provide infant care compared to other group females.[21] Male parental care is rare in the genus Cebus, only in the white-headed capuchin is there some interaction between males and offspring.[22] In white-headed capuchins males will often investigate, or at least tolerate, their offspring.[22] Alpha males are also more likely to interact with their offspring than subordinate males.[22]