Nāga

The Mahabharata epic is the first text that introduces nagas, describes them in detail and narrates their stories.[14] The cosmic snake Shesha, the nagarajas (naga kings) Vasuki, Takshaka, Airavata and Karkotaka, and the princess Ulupi, are all depicted in the Mahabharata.

The Brahma Purana describes the reign of Adishesha as the king of the serpents in Patala:[15]

During the night the light of the moon is not utilised for its coolness but only for illumination.

Since that passes away is not taken notice of by the Nāgas who enjoy with gaiety the foodstuffs and the edibles they consume and the great beverages they drink. Nor are Danujas and others aware of it.

O brahmins, the forests, rivers, lakes, and lotus ponds, the cooing of the cuckoo and other sweet birds, the pleasing skies, the unguents and the continuous notes and sounds of musical instruments such as the lute, flute and Mṛdaṅga drums, O brahmins—all these and other beautiful things are enjoyed by virtue of their good luck by Dānavas, Daityas and Nāgas residing in Pātāla. The Tāmasī form of Viṣṇu, named Śeṣa is beneath the lower regions.

Daityas and Dānavas are not capable of recounting his good qualities. He is honoured by Devas and celestial sages. He is spoken of as Ananta. He has a thousand hoods and he is clearly bedecked in Svastika ornaments devoid of impurities. He illuminates all quarters by thousand jewels on his hoods.

— Brahma Purana, Chapter 19

The Kamba Ramayana describes the role of Vasuki in the Samudra Manthana:[16]

The devas and the asuras decided to get Amṛta (Ambrosia—the celestial honey of immortalily) by churning the sea of milk. The Devas went to bring Mandara-mountain, to be used as the churning rod. Their attempt was futile. The asuras made a trial with the same result. The Bhūtagaṇas (Guards) of Śiva also made a vain attempt. On the instruction of Viṣṇu, Garuḍa went and brought the mountain as easily as an eagle takes away a frog. Now Vāsuki should be brought. The Devas and Gandharvas failed in that attempt also. Garuḍa who was haughty of his strength and speed, went to the city of the nāgas (serpents) and requested Vāsuki to come to the sea of Milk. Vāsuki replied that if the matter was so urgent he had no objection for being carried to that place. He took the middle part of Vāsuki in his beak and flew up higher and higher and reached beyond the horizon. Still the lower half of Vāsuki was lying on the ground. So he took Vāsuki in his beak as folded in two. Still the result was the same. Garuḍa became aware of the impossibility of carrying Vāsuki and returned, ashamed and disappointed. Viṣṇu rebuked him for his arrogance. After this, Śiva stretched his hand to Pātāla. Vāsuki became a small bangle on that hand. Thus Vāsuki was brought to the shore of the sea of Milk.

— Kambar, Ramayana, Yuddha Kanda

The Devi Bhagavata Purana describes the legend of Manasa:[17]

Manasā is the mind-born daughter of Maharṣi Kaśyapa; hence she is named Manasā; or it may be She who plays with the mind is Manasā. Or it may be She who meditates on God with her mind and gets rapture in Her meditation of God is named Manasā. She finds pleasure in Her Own Self, the great devotee of Viṣṇu, a Siddha Yoginī. For three Yugas She worshipped Śrī Kṛṣṇa and then She became a Siddha Yoginī. Śrī Kṛṣṇa, the Lord of the Gopīs, seeing the body of Manasā lean and thin due to austerities, or seeing her worn out like the Muni Jarat Kāru called her by the name of Jarat Kāru. Hence Her name has come also to be Jarat Kāru. Kṛṣṇa, the Ocean of Mercy, gave her out of kindness, Her desired boon; She worshipped Him and Śrī Kṛṣṇa also worshipped Her. Devī Manasā is known in the Heavens, in the abode of the Nāgas (serpents), in earth, in Brahmāloka, in all the worlds as of very fair colour, beautiful and charming. She is named Jagad Gaurī as she is of a very fair colour in the world. Her other name is Śaivī and she is the disciple of Śiva. She is named Vaiṣṇavī as she is greatly devoted to Viṣṇu. She saved the Nāgas in the Snake Sacrifice performed by Pariksit, she is named Nageśvarī and Nāga Bhaginī and She is capable to destroy the effects of poison. She is called Viṣahari. She got the Siddha yoga from Mahādeva; hence She is named Siddha Yoginī

— Devi Bhagavata Purana, Chapter 47

Nāga at the steps of a building in the Wat Phra Kaew in Bangkok.

The Nāga Saṃyutta of the Pali Canon consists of suttas specifically devoted to explaining nature of the nagas.

In the "Devadatta" chapter of the Lotus Sutra, the daughter of the dragon king, an eight year old longnü (龍女, nāgakanyā), after listening to Mañjuśrī preach the Lotus Sutra, transforms into a male Bodhisattva and immediately reaches full enlightenment.[24][25][26] Some say this tale appears to reinforce the viewpoint prevalent in Mahayana scriptures that a male body is required for Buddhahood, even if a being is so advanced in realization that they can magically transform their body at will and demonstrate the emptiness of the physical form itself.[27] However, many schools of Buddhism and classical, seminal Chinese exegeses interpret the story to repudiate this viewpoint, stating the story demonstrates that women can attain Buddhahood in their current form.[24]

According to tradition, the Prajñapāramita sutras had been given by the Buddha to a great nāga who guarded them in the sea, and were conferred upon Nāgārjuna later.[28][29]

In Tibetan Buddhist literature, nagas are portrayed as guardians or owners of submerged treasure, which can be mere wealth or supernatural, "spiritual" treasures.[22]

A granite nagaraja guardstone from Sri Lanka.

The Naga people were believed to be an ancient tribe and origins of Sri Lanka.[30][31][note 1] According to V. Kanakasabhai, the Oliyar, Parathavar, Maravar, and Eyinar, who were widespread across South India and North-East Sri Lanka, are all Naga tribes.[34] There are references to them in several ancient texts such as Mahavamsa, Manimekalai, and also in other Sanskrit and Pali literature. They are generally represented as a class of superhumans taking the form of serpents who inhabit a subterranean world. Texts such as Manimekalai represent them as persons in human form.[35][note 2]

Cambodian seven-headed naga at the Royal Palace in Phnom Penh.

Stories of nagas (Khmer: នាគ, néak) have existed for thousands of years in the Khmer society since the Funan era (នគរភ្នំ). According to reports by two Chinese envoys, Kang Tai and Zhu Ying, the state of Funan was established in the 1st century CE by an Indian prince named Kaundinya I (កៅណ្ឌិន្យទី១), who married a Nāga princess named Soma (សោមាកូនព្រះចន្ទ saôma kon preah chan; “Soma, daughter of the moon god”; Chinese: Liuye; "Willow Leaf"). They are symbolized in the story of Preah Thong and Neang Neakii. Kaundinya was given instruction in a dream to take a magic bow from a temple and defeat a Nāga princess named Soma, the daughter of the Nāga king. They fell in love during the battle and later married, their lineage becoming the royal dynasty of Funan. Kaundinya later built a capital, Vyadhapura, and the kingdom came to be known as Kambujadeśa or Cambodia (កម្ពុជា, Kampuchea).[36][37][38] The love story is the source of many standard practices in modern-day Khmer culture, including wedding ceremonies and other rituals.[39][40] The Khmer people believe they are the descendants of the nagas. Many Khmer people still believe they exist, and will one day reappear, coming back home bringing prosperity for their people.

Although many temples from the Funan Era had been destroyed through wars, nature, and time, nagas can still be seen in ancient temples from the Chenla Era and the Angkor Era. For example, like the temple modern day named "The Coiled nagas Temple" (ប្រាសាទនាគព័ន្ធ, Prasat Neak Poan) was once called, "Emperor's Wealth Temple" (ប្រាសាទរាជ្យស្រី Prasat Reach Srey).[41]

Nāga in the Khmer culture represent rain, or a bridge between the mortal realm (ឋានមនុស្ស) and the realm of devas (Heaven; ឋានទេវតា/ឋានសួគ៌), and they can transform into half human or fully human. They act as protectors from invisible forces, deities, or other humans with malicious intention. Furthermore, Cambodian Nāga possess numerological symbolism in the middle of their heads. Odd-headed Nāga symbolize masculinity, infinity, timelessness, and immortality. This is because, numerologically, all odd numbers come from the number one (១). Seven-headed Nāga are said to be representing femininity, physicality, mortality, temporality, and the Earth. Odd headed nagas are believed to represent immortality and are carved and used throughout Cambodia.[42][43]

Odd-Headed Nāga (Name, origin, and connotations):

-1 Headed Nāga: mostly seen in modern days; carved on objects as protection, temples, monastery, King's residence, residence of a deity (អទីទេព)

Symbolizes, that even if everything in this world is gone, there's still this Nāga left bringing victory and happiness to all

-3 Kalyak: born between the mortal realm and devas' realm, they live at the bottom of the ocean and is the guardian of wealth, often depicted as evil (nothing to do with the symbolism)

Symbolizes the Trimurti; (left Vishnu, middle Shiva and right Brahma) but also the three realm [heaven (devas' realm), earth (mortal realm) and hell (norok realm)]. In Buddhism, the central head represents Buddha, the right head represents Dharma and the left one represents the monks.

-5 Anontak/Sesak: born out of the elemental elements on Earth, they're immortals

Symbolizes the directions; East, West, North, South and Middle (Ganga river, Indus river, Yamuna river, Brahmaputra river (Brahma's Son River), Sarasvati river). In Buddhism, the dragon heads represent the 5 Buddhas: Kadabak, Kunsontho, Koneakumno, Samnak Koudom Gautama Buddha, and Seare Metrey.

-7 Muchlentak: originated from the bottom of the Himalayas, they bring peace and prosperity to humans, they're deities who control the seven oceans and seven mountains called 'Seytontaraksatakboriphorn.' They are also the Nāga that sheltered Gautama Buddha for 7 days and 7 nights (Mucalinda). Often depicted as guardian statues, carved as balustrades on causeways leading to main Khmer temples, such as those found in Angkor Wat.[43] They also represent the seven races within Naga society, which has a mythological, or symbolic, association with "the seven colors of the rainbow."

Symbolizes the Sun, the Moon and five other planets; ចន្ទ (Moon)[also Monday] អង្គារ (Mars)[Tuesday] ពុធ (Mercury)[Wednesday] ព្រហស្បតិ៍ (Jupiter)[Thursday] សុក្រ (Venus)[Friday] សៅរ៍ (Saturn)[Saturday] អាទិត្យ (Sun)[Sunday]

-9 Vasukak: Is the king who rules the Earth (Vasuki). For this Nāga, when carved on both sides, the front heads represent reincarnation and the behind represent death.

Symbolizes power of the nine immortals of the universe; power of the lightning and thunder of the East (ទិសបូព៌ា), power of the fire of the Southeast (ទិសអាគ្នេយ៍), power of the law and order of the South (ទិសខាងត្បូង), power of the spirits and demonic creatures of the Southwest (ទិសនារតី), power of the rain of the West (ទិសខាងលិច), power of the wind of the Northwest (ទិសពាយព្យ), power of the wealth and aesthetic of the North (ទិសឧត្តរ), power of destruction of the Northeast (ទិសឥសាន្ត), power of Brahma (creation and preservation) in the middle (កណ្តាល).

In Vedas and shramanism, there are four different Nāga race:

1) Primitive Dragons such as the European dragon who can spit fire.

2) The Spiritual Dragons who are the guardians of wealth, they protect treasure in the ocean. They can take on a half human form.

3) The Divine nagas, who can travel to heaven, they came from Lord Indra's realm (the divine realm), they can take on a full human form.

4) The Supreme and Divine nagas, like Vasuki the follower of Lord Shiva, who alone can fight all the Garuḍa race.

All of them have great powers and can set off storms, rain, tempest and create lands from the sea.

Crowned golden nāga-woodcarving at Keraton Yogyakarta, Java.

In Javanese and Balinese culture, Indonesia, a nāga is depicted as a crowned, giant, magical serpent, sometimes winged. It is similarly derived from the Shiva-Hinduism tradition, merged with Javanese animism. The nāga in Indonesia mainly derived and influenced by Indic tradition, combined with the native animism tradition of sacred serpents. In Sanskrit, the term nāga literally means snake, but in Java it normally refer to serpent deity, associated with water and fertility. In Borobudur, the nagas are depicted in their human form, but elsewhere they are depicted in animal shape.[44]

Early depictions of circa-9th-century Central Java closely resembled Indic nāga which was based on imagery of cobras. During this period, nāga-serpents were depicted as giant cobras supporting the waterspout of yoni-lingam. The examples of nāga-sculpture can be found in several Javanese candis, including Prambanan, Sambisari, Ijo, and Jawi. In East Java, the Penataran temple complex contain a Candi Nāga, an unusual nāga-temple with its Hindu-Javanese caryatids holding corpulent nagas aloft.[45]

Crowned nāga flanked the stairs entrance of Pura Jagatkarta.

The later depiction since the 15th century, however, was slightly influenced by Chinese dragon imagery—although unlike its Chinese counterparts, Javanese and Balinese nagas do not have legs. Nāga as the lesser deity of earth and water is prevalent in the Hindu period of Indonesia, before the introduction of Islam.

In Balinese tradition, nagas are often depicted battling garuḍas. Intricately carved nagas are found as stairs railings in bridges or stairs, such as those found in Balinese temples, Ubud monkey forest, and Taman Sari in Yogyakarta.

In a wayang theater story, a snake-like god (nāga) named Sanghyang Anantaboga or Antaboga is a guardian deity in the bowels of the earth.[46][47] nagas symbolize the nether realm of earth or underworld.

The Nāga (Lao: ພະຍານາກ) is believed to live in the Laotian stretch of the Mekong or its estuaries. Lao mythology maintains that the nagas are the protectors of Vientiane, and by extension, the Lao state. The association with nagas was most clearly articulated during and immediately after the reign of Anouvong. An important poem from this period San Leupphasun (Lao: ສານລຶພສູນ) discusses relations between Laos and Thailand in a veiled manner, using the Nāga and the Garuḍa to represent the Lao and the Thai, respectively.[48] The Nāga is incorporated extensively into Lao iconography, and features prominently in Lao culture throughout the length of the country, not only in Vientiane.

Phaya Nak or Phaya Nāga (Thai: พญานาค; RTGS: phaya nak; lit. 'lord of Nāga', phaya derived from Mon which mean high nobility) or Nakkharat (Thai: นาคราช; lit. 'king of Nāga') in Thai beliefs, nagas are considered the patrons of water. Nagas are believed to live in either water bodies or in caves. According to a popular legend, the Mekong River in north-eastern Thailand and Laos was said to be created by two Nāga kings slithering through the area, thus creating the Mekong and the nearby Nan River. The Mekong is synonymous with the unexplained fireballs phenomenon which has long been believed to be created by the nagas that dwell in the river.[49][50] Common explanations of their sightings have been attributed to oarfish, elongated fish with red crests; however, these are exclusively marine and usually live at great depths.

In November 2022, the Thai government declared the Naga as the national symbol of Thailand, with the aim of promoting Thai culture and traditions and increasing the country's cultural capital to drive the creative economy. The Naga is a mythical creature with long-standing beliefs and connections to the Thai people, and its designation as a national symbol is a significant step towards preserving and promoting Thai culture. The National Culture Commission and the Fine Arts Department developed a prototype image of the Naga that accurately represents Thai beliefs and traditions related to the creature. The prototype image features the four families of Nagas, each with its unique color, and the largest Naga, Nak Vasuki (Thai: นาควาสุกรี), who is related to Buddhism and the Thai monarchy, The Naga is also believed to be a symbol of water and fertility and serves as a guardian of Buddhism.[51][52][53]

Due to the strong relation with everything water, the Nāga in Thai belief also plays a role in rain control. The concept of Nak hai nam (Thai: นาคให้น้ำ; lit. Nāga granting water) is used for annual rainfall prediction. It is still practiced nowadays, most notably during the Royal Ploughing Ceremony. The oracle ranges from 1 nak hai nam (1 Nāga granted water); meaning the abundant rainfall should be observed that year, to maximum 7 nak hai nam (7 nagas granted water); meaning there might not be adequate rainfall that year.[54]

In northern Thailand, the Singhanavati Kingdom had a strong connection with nagas. The kingdom was believed to be built with aids of nagas, and thus, nagas were highly reverend by the royal family. The kingdom, for a period of time, was renamed Yonok Nāga Rāj (lit. Yonok the nagaraja)[55]

The nagas are also highly revered. The Buddhist temples and palaces are often adorned with various nagas. The term Nāga is also present in various Thai architecture terms including the nak sadung (นาคสะดุ้ง, the outer roof finial component featuring Nāga-like structure), and the nak than (นาคทันต์, the corbel with Nāga-shape).[56] Moreover, nagas are sometimes linked to medicine. The naga Vasuki is present in the legend of the Samudra Manthana, in which Dhanvantari (god of Ayurveda) and amrita (the elixir of eternal life) were churned from the Ocean of Milk. The nagas can also be founded substituting the snakes in either Rod of Asclepius or mistakenly Caduceus of several medical institutions' symbols. The former seal of Faculty of Medicine, Srinakharinwirot University, and the seal of Society of Medical Student Thailand are some notable examples using the Caduceus with nagas' presence instead of snakes.[57]

Thai folklore holds the Phaya nagas to be semi-divine, demi-creatures, which possess supernatural powers as has been described in Buddhist and Hindu cosmology.[58] The "Kamchanod Forest" (ป่าคำชะโนด; RTGS: Pa Khamchanot) Ban Dung district, Udon Thani province, which is held in high reverence and fear across Thailand, is believed to be the border between the human world and the netherworld, and is frequently depicted in Thai folklore as the site of many hauntings, but more frequently is considered to be the home of the Nāga.[59]

According to Shan folklore of Nánzhào Kingdom (now southern China and Southeast Asia during the 8th and 9th centuries, which was centered on present-day Yúnnán in China), the Nāga inhabited the Ěrhǎi lake and is the creator of the Mekong.[58] In China, the Nāga (Chinese: 那伽) is generally more considered to be a dragon.

Many people, particularly in Isan (the north-eastern region of Thailand), believe that the nagas are responsible for unnatural wave phenomena occurring in the rivers or lakes in the vicinity. It is also frequently claimed that the serpent-like demigods are responsible for marks on common objects, such as car hoods or house walls.[50]

A police office has also claimed to be in contact with the Nāga, although the implications of this contact is not thoroughly explained.[60]

In attempts to explain these phenomena, scientists and researchers at the Faculty of Science of Chulalongkorn University have attributed these seemingly preternatural phenomena to standing waves in water, and posit that the existence of the Phaya Nāga is similar to belief in Loch Ness Monster in Scotland or Ogopogo in Canada, and further maintain that the serpent-like tracks of the Phaya Nāga are very possibly forged by humans.[61]

• 
  Head of Nāga sculpture in Songkhla Province.
• 
  A sign featuring Nāgas by the Mekong River, Nong Khai Province, Thailand: Nāgas and the Mekong are strongly associated in local beliefs.
• 
  Illustration of Royal Barge Anantanakkharat, 1873.
• 
  Royal Barge Anantanakkharat at National Museum of Royal Barges, Bangkok.
• 
  Nāga sculpture at Suvarnabhumi airport.
• 
  Nāga, Himmapan animal on Royal Crematorium King Rama IX.
• 
  Garuḍa devouring Nāga, at Wat Phra Kaew.

In Malay and Orang Asli traditions, the lake Chini, located in Pahang is home to a Nāga called Sri Gumum. Depending on legend versions, her predecessor Sri Pahang or her son left the lake and later fought a Nāga called Sri Kemboja. Kemboja is the Malay name for Cambodia. Like the Nāga-legends there, there are stories about an ancient empire in lake Chini, although the stories are not linked to the Nāga-legends.[62][63]

Bakunawa hilt from a Visayan (Panay) tenegre sword.

The indigenous Bakunawa, a serpent-like moon-eating creature in Philippine mythology, was syncretized with the Nāga. It is believed to be the cause of eclipses, earthquakes, rains, and wind.[64] The movements of the bakunawa served as a geomantic calendar system for ancient Filipinos and were part of the shamanistic rituals of the babaylan. It is usually depicted with a characteristically looped tail and was variously believed to inhabit either the sea, the sky, or the underworld.[65] However, the bakunawa may have also syncretized with the Hindu deities, Rahu and Ketu, the navagraha of eclipses.[66]

• Several Bollywood films have been made about female nagas, including Nagin (1954), Nagin (1976), Nagina (1986), Nigahen (1989), Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani (2002), and Hisss (2010). Naga also appear in television series such as Naaginn (2007-2009) and Naagin (2015).
• In the 1998 film Jungle Boy, the Naga is depicted as a large cobra deity that grants the gift of understanding all languages to those who are pure of heart and punishes those who are not pure of heart in different ways.
• In the 1999 Telugu film Devi, a Nagini played by Prema comes to Earth to protect a woman who saves her when she was in the snake form. She eventually falls in love with a human.
• The Nagas are antagonists in the cartoon The Secret Saturdays. They served the ancient Sumerian cryptid Kur and attempted to push Zak Saturday into the dark side after learning that he was Kur reincarnated, but eventually served V. V. Argost when he gained his own Kur powers.
• Many lakorn (Thai television soap operas) are based on a Phaya Naga legend, such as Poot Mae Nam Khong (ภูติแม่น้ำโขง) in 2008,[69] Manisawat (มณีสวาท) in 2013,[70] or Nakee (นาคี) in 2016.[71]
• A search for the Phaya Naga was recently featured in a Destination Truth episode on the SyFy (formerly Sci-Fi Channel) series in Series 01 (episode 02).[72]
• The dragons in the 2021 film Raya and the Last Dragon are based on the Phaya Naga.
• A serpent god named Nāga is featured in the 2021 animated film Batman: Soul of the Dragon.

• Naga are featured in The Silent Bells, the fourth book in N. D. Wilson's Ashtown Burials series.
• The Japanese anime and manga series, Slayers (1989), has a principal character named Naga the Serpent (introduced in 1990).
• In J. K. Rowling's Wizarding World, Nagini is one of Voldemort's horcruxes in the Harry Potter series and a Maledictus, a carrier of blood curse, in the 2018 film Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindlewald. Her curse allows her to change into a snake and back into a human, but her snake form eventually becomes permanent.

• Nagas appear in the Dungeons & Dragons roleplaying game, depicted as massive serpents with human heads.
• The Nagas appear in the multiple franchises by Blizzard Entertainment. In Warcraft, they are depicted as ancient night elves that have snake-like tails in place of legs, and have other serpentine or aquatic features such as scales and fins. The Nagas came to be when they were transformed from the ancient night elves by the Old Gods. Their queen Azshara is described as a demigoddess. The digital card game Hearthstone incorporated Naga as a minion type in its Battlegrounds game mode on May 10, 2022.[73]
• Nagas also appear in The Battle for Wesnoth, and are depicted as a more snakelike counterpart to the merfolk, who are often their enemies.
• Magic: The Gathering's 2014–2015 block, set on the plane of Tarkir, featured Naga as humanoid snakes versed in powerful venoms and poisons with two arms and no other appendages. They are aligned with the Sultai clan in the sets, Khans of Tarkir[74] and Fate Reforged,[75] and with the Silumgar clan in the Dragons of Tarkir[76] set.
• Nagas are units in Heroes of Might and Magic III.