Quasi-state

A quasi-state (some times referred to as state-like entity[2] or formatively a proto-state[3][2]) is a political entity that does not represent a fully institutionalised or autonomous sovereign state.[4]

Map of the British Empire under Queen Victoria at the end of the nineteenth century. "Dominions" refers to all territories belonging to the Crown.
A map of the Middle East showing areas controlled by ISIL as of May 2015: a number of major cities in northern Syria and Iraq, and corridors connecting them.
Maximum extent of the territory of the Islamic State (frequently described as a proto-state) in Iraq and Syria, on 21 May 2015.[1]

The precise definition of quasi-state in political literature fluctuates depending on the context in which it is used. It has been used by some modern scholars to describe the self-governing British colonies and dependencies that exercised a form of home rule but remained crucial parts of the British Empire and subject firstly to the metropole's administration.[5][6] Similarly, the Republics of the Soviet Union, which represented administrative units with their own respective national distinctions, have also been described as quasi-states.[4]

In the 21st century usage, the term quasi-state has most often been evoked in reference to militant secessionist groups who claim, and exercise some form of territorial control over, a specific region, but which lack institutional cohesion.[5] Such quasi-states include the Republika Srpska and Herzeg-Bosnia during the Bosnian War[5] and Azawad during the 2012 Tuareg rebellion.[7] The Islamic State is also widely held to be an example of a modern quasi-state or proto-state.[8][2][9][10]

History

Tuareg rebels in the short-lived proto-state of Azawad.

The term "proto-state" has been used in reference to contexts as far back as Ancient Greece, to refer to the phenomenon that the formation of a large and cohesive nation would often be preceded by very small and loose forms of statehood.[11] For instance, historical sociologist Garry Runciman describes the evolution of social organisation in the Greek Dark Ages from statelessness, to what he calls semistates based on patriarchal domination but lacking inherent potential to achieve the requirements for statehood, sometimes transitioning into protostates with governmental roles able to maintain themselves generationally, which could evolve into larger and more centralised entities fulfilling the requirements of statehood by 700 BC in the archaic period.[11][12]

Most ancient proto-states were the product of tribal societies, consisting of relatively short-lived confederations of communities that united under a single warlord or chieftain endowed with symbolic authority and military rank.[11] These were not considered sovereign states since they rarely achieved any degree of institutional permanence and authority was often exercised over a mobile people rather than measurable territory.[11] Loose confederacies of this nature were the primary means of embracing a common statehood by people in many regions, such as the Central Asian steppes, throughout ancient history.[13]

Proto-states proliferated in Western Europe during the Middle Ages, likely as a result of a trend towards political decentralisation following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire and the adoption of feudalism.[14] While theoretically owing allegiance to a single monarch under the feudal system, many lesser nobles administered their own fiefs as miniature "states within states" that were independent of each other.[15] This practice was especially notable with regards to large, decentralised political entities such as the Holy Roman Empire, that incorporated many autonomous and semi-autonomous proto-states.[16]

Following the Age of Discovery, the emergence of European colonialism resulted in the formation of colonial proto-states in Asia, Africa, and the Americas.[17] A few colonies were given the unique status of protectorates, which were effectively controlled by the metropole but retained limited ability to administer themselves, self-governing colonies, dominions, and dependencies.[5] These were distinct administrative units that each fulfilled many of the functions of a state without actually exercising full sovereignty or independence.[17] Colonies without a sub-national home rule status, on the other hand, were considered administrative extensions of the colonising power rather than true proto-states.[18] Colonial proto-states later served as the basis for a number of modern nation states, particularly on the Asian and African continents.[17]

During the twentieth century, some proto-states existed as not only distinct administrative units, but their own theoretically self-governing republics joined to each other in a political union such as the socialist federal systems observed in Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union.[5][4][19]

Territory controlled by the Anti-Fascist Council of Yugoslavia, which established its own proto-state in 1942

Another form of proto-state that has become especially common since the end of World War II is established through the unconstitutional seizure of territory by an insurgent or militant group that proceeds to assume the role of a de facto government.[8] Although denied recognition and bereft of civil institutions, insurgent proto-states may engage in external trade, provide social services, and even undertake limited diplomatic activity.[20] These proto-states are usually formed by movements drawn from geographically concentrated ethnic or religious minorities, and are thus a common feature of inter-ethnic civil conflicts.[21] This is often due to the inclinations of an internal cultural identity group seeking to reject the legitimacy of a sovereign state's political order, and create its own enclave where it is free to live under its own sphere of laws, social mores, and ordering.[21] Since the 1980s a special kind of insurgent statehood has emerged in form of the "Jihadi proto-state", as the Islamist concept of statehood is extremely flexible. For instance, a Jihadi emirate can be simply understood as a territory or group ruled by an emir; accordingly, it might rule a significant area or just a neighborhood. Regardless of its extent, the assumption of statehood provides Jihadi militants with important internal legitimacy and cementes their self-identification as frontline society opposed to certain enemies.[8]

The accumulation of territory by an insurgent force to form a sub-national geopolitical system and eventually, a proto-state, was a calculated process in China during the Chinese Civil War that set a precedent for many similar attempts throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.[22] Proto-states established as a result of civil conflict typically exist in a perpetual state of warfare and their wealth and populations may be limited accordingly.[23] One of the most prominent examples of a wartime proto-state in the twenty-first century is the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant,[24][25][26] that maintained its own administrative bureaucracy and imposed taxes.[27]

Theoretical basis

The definition of a proto-state is not concise, and has been confused by the interchangeable use of the terms state, country, and nation to describe a given territory.[28] The term proto-state is preferred to "proto-nation" in an academic context, however, since some authorities also use nation to denote a social, ethnic, or cultural group capable of forming its own state.[28]

A proto-state does not meet the four essential criteria for statehood as elaborated upon in the declarative theory of statehood of the 1933 Montevideo Convention: a permanent population, a defined territory, a government with its own institutions, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states.[28] A proto-state is not necessarily synonymous with a state with limited recognition that otherwise has all the hallmarks of a fully functioning sovereign state, such as Rhodesia or the Republic of China, also known as Taiwan.[28] However, proto-states frequently go unrecognised since a state actor that recognises a proto-state does so in violation of another state actor's external sovereignty.[29] If full diplomatic recognition is extended to a proto-state and embassies exchanged, it is defined as a sovereign state in its own right and may no longer be classified as a proto-state.[29]

Territory of Croatia controlled by the Republic of Serbian Krajina proto-state 1991–1995.

Throughout modern history, partially autonomous regions of larger recognised states, especially those based on a historical precedent or ethnic and cultural distinctiveness that places them apart from those who dominate the state as a whole, have been considered proto-states.[5] Home rule generates a sub-national institutional structure that may justifiably be defined as a proto-state.[30] When a rebellion or insurrection seizes control and begins to establish some semblance of administration in regions within national territories under its effective rule, it has also metamorphosed into a proto-state.[31] These wartime proto-states, sometimes known as insurgent states, may eventually transform the structure of a state altogether, or demarcate their own autonomous political spaces.[31] While not a new phenomenon, the modern formation of a proto-states in territory held by a militant non-state entity was popularised by Mao Zedong during the Chinese Civil War, and the national liberation movements worldwide that adopted his military philosophies.[22] The rise of an insurgent proto-state was sometimes also an indirect consequence of a movement adopting Che Guevara's foco theory of guerrilla warfare.[22]

Secessionist proto-states are likeliest to form in preexisting states that lack secure boundaries, a concise and well-defined body of citizens, or a single sovereign power with a monopoly on the legitimate use of military force.[32] They may be created as a result of putsches, insurrections, separatist political campaigns, foreign intervention, sectarian violence, civil war, and even the bloodless dissolution or division of the state.[32]

Proto-states can be important regional players, as their existence impacts the options available to state actors, either as potential allies or as impediments to their political or economic policy articulations.[31]

List of proto-states

Current

Proto-stateParent stateAchieved statehoodSinceSource
 Adygea  RussiaRussian Federation 1991 [5]
 Åland  FinlandNo 1921 [5][33]
 Altai Republic  RussiaRussian Federation 1992 [5]
 Aruba  NetherlandsNo 1986 [5]
Ashanti  GhanaNo 1957 [34]
 Azad Kashmir  PakistanNo 1975 [5]
 Azores  PortugalNo 1816 [5]
 Bashkortostan  RussiaRussian Federation 1990 [5]
 British Virgin Islands United KingdomNo1960[5]
 Bougainville  Papua New GuineaDe facto 2001 [5]
 Buryatia  RussiaRussian Federation 1990 [5]
 Canary Islands  SpainNo 1816 [5]
 Catalonia  SpainNo 1978 [5]
 Cayman Islands  United KingdomNo 1962 [5]
 Chin State  MyanmarNo 1949 [5]
 Christmas Island  AustraliaNo 1958 [5]
 Chuvashia  RussiaRussian Federation 1992 [5]
 Cook Islands  New ZealandDe jure 1888 [5]
 Corsica  FranceNo 1978 [5]
 Curaçao  NetherlandsNo 2010 [5]
 Dagestan  RussiaRussian Federation 1991 [5]
 Easter Island  ChileNo 1944 [5]
 Euskadi  SpainNo 1978 [5]
 Falkland Islands  United KingdomNo 1833 [5]
 Faroe Islands  DenmarkNo 1948 [5]
 Flanders  BelgiumNo 1970 [5]
 French Polynesia  FranceNo 1847 [5]
 Galicia  SpainNo 1978 [5]
 Greenland  DenmarkNo 1816 [5]
 Guam  United StatesNo 1816 [5]
 Guernsey  United KingdomNo 1204 [5]
Indian reservations  United StatesDe jure 1658 [5]
Indigenous territory (Brazil)  BrazilNo 1850[35]
 Ingushetia  RussiaRussian Federation 1992 [5]
 Iraqi Kurdistan IraqNo1991[36]
 Isle of Man United KingdomDe jure1828[5]
 Jersey United KingdomDe jure1204[5]
Jewish Autonomous Oblast  RussiaRussian Federation 1934
 Jubaland SomaliaNo2001[note 1]
 Kabardino-Balkaria  RussiaRussian Federation 1992 [5]
 Kachin State  MyanmarNo 1949 [5]
 Kalmykia  RussiaRussian Federation 1992 [5]
 Karachay-Cherkessia  RussiaRussian Federation 1992 [5]
 Karelia  RussiaRussian Federation 1991 [5]
 Kayah State  MyanmarNo 1949 [5]
 Kayin State  MyanmarNo 1949 [5]
 Khakassia  RussiaRussian Federation 1992 [5]
 Komi Republic  RussiaRussian Federation 1996 [5]
 Madeira  PortugalNo 1816 [5]
 Mari El  RussiaRussian Federation 1990 [5]
 Marquesas Islands  FranceNo 1844 [5]
 Montserrat  United KingdomNo 1632 [5]
 Mon State  MyanmarNo 1949 [5]
 Mordovia  RussiaRussian Federation 1994 [5]
 New Caledonia  FranceNo 1853 [5]
 Northern Marianas  United StatesNo 1899 [5]
 North Ossetia-Alania  RussiaRussian Federation 1995 [5]
 Nunavut  CanadaNo 1999 [5]
 Puerto Rico  United StatesNo 1816 [5]
 Puntland SomaliaNo1998[39]
 Quebec  CanadaNo 1816 [5]
 Saint Helena  United KingdomNo 1834 [5]
 Sakha Republic  RussiaRussian Federation 1991 [5]
 Shan State  MyanmarNo 1949 [5]
 Sint Maarten  NetherlandsNo 2010 [5]
 South Tyrol  ItalyNo 1926 [5]
  Svalbard  NorwayNo 1992 [5]
 Tatarstan  RussiaRussian Federation 1990 [5]
 Temotu  Solomon IslandsNo 1981 [5]
 Turks and Caicos  United KingdomNo 1973 [5]
 Tuva  RussiaRussian Federation 1992 [5]
 Udmurtia  RussiaRussian Federation 1990 [5]
 United States Virgin Islands  United StatesNo 1816 [5]
 Wallonia  BelgiumNo 1970 [5]
 Wa State  MyanmarDe facto 2010 [40][41]
 Zanzibar  TanzaniaNo 1964 [5]

Former

Proto-stateParent stateAchieved statehoodDatesSource
 Adjara  GeorgiaNo 1921–2004 [5]
 Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic  Transcaucasian SFSR,  Soviet UnionYes 1922–1991
Artsakh  AzerbaijanDe facto 1991-2023
 Aruba  NetherlandsNo 1986–1995 [5]
 Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic  Transcaucasian SFSR,  Soviet UnionYes 1922–1991
 Bophuthatswana  South AfricaDe jure 1977–1994 [42]
Bosnia-Herzegovina  YugoslaviaYes 1943–1992 [19]
 Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic  Russian SFSR,  Soviet UnionYes 1920–1991
 Ciskei  South AfricaDe jure 1981–1994 [42]
Croatia  YugoslaviaYes 1943–1991 [19]
Carpatho-Ukraine Carpathian Ruthenia  CzechoslovakiaDe facto 1938–1939
 Czech Socialist Republic  CzechoslovakiaYes 1969–1993 [32]
 East Caprivi  South AfricaNo 1972–1989 [42]
 Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet UnionYes 1940–1941, 1944–1991
Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic FinlandNo1918
Free State of Bottleneck  Prussia,  Weimar Republic No 1919-1923
Free Republic of Schwarzenberg
Soviet occupation zone Soviet occupation zone of GermanyDe facto 1945
Ukraine Galician Ruthenians Austria-HungaryDe facto1848–1918
 Gagauzia  MoldovaNo 1991–1994 [5]
 Gazankulu  South AfricaNo 1971–1994 [42]
 Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic  Transcaucasian SFSR,  Soviet UnionYes 1922–1991
India Jammu and Kashmir  IndiaNo 1921–2019 [5]
 Hereroland  South AfricaNo 1970–1989 [42]
 KaNgwane  South AfricaNo 1972–1994 [42]
Republic of Karelia Karelian ASSR  Russian SFSR,  Soviet Unionunion republic 1923–1940
 Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet UnionNo 1940–1956
 Kavangoland  South AfricaNo 1973–1989 [42]
 Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet UnionYes 1936–1991
 Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet UnionYes 1936–1991
 KwaNdebele  South AfricaNo 1981–1994 [42]
 KwaZulu  South AfricaNo 1981–1994 [42]
 Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet UnionYes 1940–1941, 1944–1991
 Lebowa  South AfricaNo 1972–1994 [42]
 Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet UnionYes 1940–1941, 1944–1990/1991
Macedonia  YugoslaviaYes 1945–1991 [19]
Montenegro  Yugoslavia,  Serbia and MontenegroYes 1945–2006 [19]
Moldova Moldavian ASSR  Ukrainian SSR,  Soviet Unionunion republic 1924–1940
 Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet UnionYes 1940–1991
 Ovamboland  South AfricaNo 1973–1989 [42]
 QwaQwa  South AfricaNo 1974–1994 [42]
 Russian SFSR  Soviet UnionYes 1917–1991 [4]
Serbia  Yugoslavia,  Serbia and MontenegroYes 1945–2006 [19]
Singapore Singapore  MalaysiaYes 1963–1965 [5]
 Slovak Socialist Republic  CzechoslovakiaYes 1969–1993 [32]
Slovenia  YugoslaviaYes 1945–1991 [19]
South Africa South West Africa (Namibia)  South AfricaYes 1915–1990 [43]
South Sudan Southern Sudan  SudanYes 2005–2011 [44]
 Transkei  South AfricaDe jure 1976–1994 [42]
 Trucial States  United KingdomYes 1820–1971 [45]
 Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet UnionYes 1929–1991
Turkestan ASSR  Russian SFSRNo 1918–1924 [46]
 Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet UnionYes 1925–1991
 Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets  Russian SFSR No 1917–1918
 Ukrainian Soviet Republic  Russian SFSR No 1918
 Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic  Russian SFSR,  Soviet Union Yes 1919–1991 [47]
 Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic  Soviet UnionYes 1924–1991
 Venda South AfricaDe jure1979–1994[42]

Current

Proto-stateParent stateAchieved statehoodSinceSource
Abkhazia GeorgiaDe facto1992
Al-Qaeda Mali
 Somalia
De facto2006
Al-Shabaab SomaliaNo2009[48]
Allied Democratic Forces Democratic Republic of the Congo
 Uganda
No1996[49]
Ambazonia CameroonNo2017
Ansar al-Sharia (Yemen)  YemenNo 2011 [48]
Ansar al-Sunna  MozambiqueNo 2020
Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria  SyriaPartial 2012 [50]
Cabinda AngolaNo1975
Central African Republic Coalition of Patriots for Change Central African RepublicNo2020
Houthi movement Houthi movement YemenNo2004
Afghanistan Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan Islamic State of AfghanistanYes1994
Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan PakistanNo2006[48]
 Islamic State Iraq
 Syria
 Afghanistan
 Somalia
 Yemen
 Nigeria
 Libya
 Mozambique
De facto2013[28][51][52]
Kachin  MyanmarNo 1961
Khatumo  SomaliaNo 2012
Kosovo Kosovo  SerbiaDe facto 2008
Mai-Mai  Democratic Republic of the CongoNo 2015
National Democratic Alliance Army  MyanmarNo 1989
National Resistance Front of Afghanistan  AfghanistanNo 2021
Nduma Defense of Congo-Renovated  Democratic Republic of the CongoNo 2015
 Northern Cyprus CyprusDe facto1974
Oromo Liberation Front  EthiopiaNo 1973
Syrian opposition Revolutionary Commando Army  SyriaNo 2016
 Sahrawi Republic  MoroccoPartial 1976 [53]
State of Palestine State of Palestine IsraelYes1988
Somaliland  SomaliaDe facto 1991
South Ossetia GeorgiaDe facto1991
Southern Transitional Council YemenDe facto2017
Sudan Revolutionary Front  SudanNo 2011
Syrian opposition Syrian Interim Government  SyriaNo 2013
Syrian Salvation Government  SyriaNo 2017
Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan  PakistanNo 2002 [48]
Tigray People's Liberation Front EthiopiaPartial2020
Transnistria  MoldovaDe facto 1990
United Wa State Army  MyanmarNo 1989
West Papua IndonesiaNo1971
Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities  MexicoDe facto1994

Former

Proto-stateParent stateAchieved statehoodDatesSource
Al-Nusra Front SyriaNo2012–2017[51]
Ansar al-Islam IraqNo2001–2003[48]
Angola PortugalYes1961–1975
Ansar al-Sharia (Libya) LibyaNo2014–2017[51]
Ansar Dine MaliNo2012–2013[51]
 Donetsk People's Republic and

 Luhansk People's Republic

 UkraineDe facto2014-2022[54]
Russia Armed Forces of South Russia RussiaNo1919–1920[55]
 Azawad MaliDe facto2012–2013[7]
Islamic State Boko Haram Nigeria
 Cameroon
No2013–2015[51]
 Carpatho-Ukraine  Czechoslovakia,  Hungary De facto 1938–1939
 Chechen Republic of Ichkeria RussiaDe facto1991–2000[29]
 Chinese Soviet RepublicTaiwan ChinaNo1931–1937[22]
Communist ChinaTaiwan ChinaYes1927–1949[22]
Dar al-Kuti Central African RepublicDe facto2015-2021[56]
Dubrovnik RepublicCroatia CroatiaNo1991–1992[5]
Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western SyrmiaCroatia CroatiaNo1995–1998[5]
FARC ColombiaNo1964–2017[57]
Fatah al-Islam  Lebanon No 2007 [48]
FujianChina ChinaNo1933–1934
Groupe islamique armé AlgeriaNo1993–1995[48]
Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia Herzeg-BosniaRepublic of Bosnia and Herzegovina Republic of Bosnia and HerzegovinaNo1991–1996[5]
 Hyderabad State IndiaDe facto1947–1948[5]
Idel-Ural StateRussia RussiaNo1917–1918[58]
Republic of Ireland Irish Republic United KingdomYes1919–1922[59]
Islamic Emirate of Kunar  Republic of Afghanistan No 1989–1991 [48]
Afghanistan Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan Islamic State of AfghanistanDe facto1996–2001
Islamic Republic of Imbaba  Egypt No 1989–1992 [48]
Jamiat-e Islami Democratic Republic of AfghanistanNo1982–1989[60]
Republic of Kosova FR YugoslaviaNo1992–1999[61]
Kharkiv People's RepublicUkraine UkraineNo2014 [62]
 JiangxiChina ChinaNo1931–1937[22]
 Jubaland SomaliaNo1998–2001[37]
Junbish-e Milli  Republic of Afghanistan (until April 28)
 Islamic State of Afghanistan (from April 28)
No1992-1997[63]
Liberated Yugoslavia Independent State of Croatia
Occupied Serbia
Yes1942–1945[64]
 MongoliaChina ChinaYes1911–1946
 Mozambique PortugalYes1964–1974[note 2]
Revolutionary Vietnam South VietnamNo1969–1976

[53]

Republika SrpskaRepublic of Bosnia and Herzegovina Republic of Bosnia and HerzegovinaNo1991–1995[5]
Red Spears' rebel area in Dengzhou ChinaNo1929[65]
Serbian Krajina CroatiaNo1991–1995[66]
Sudetenland  CzechoslovakiaNo 1918–1938 [67]
Liberia "Taylorland" or Greater Liberia LiberiaNo1990–1995/97[note 3]
Tamil Eelam Sri LankaDe facto1983–2009[57][70][71]
Tibet TibetChina ChinaNo1912–1951 [note 4]
 Ukrainian National Government  Soviet Union,  Nazi Germany No 1941
 Ukrainian People's Republic  Russian Republic,  Russian SFSR Yes 1917–1921
 United States  Great BritainYes 1776-1783
 West Ukrainian People's Republic  Austria-Hungary,  Poland No 1918–1919
Western BosniaRepublic of Bosnia and Herzegovina Republic of Bosnia and HerzegovinaNo1993–1995[5]
 Zaporozhian Sich Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Yes 16th century–1649 [72]

See also

Notes and references

Annotations

  1. Jubaland declared itself independent of Somalia in 1998.[37] It technically rejoined Somalia in 2001 when its ruling Juba Valley Alliance became part of the country's Transitional Federal Government. However, Jubaland has continued to persist as a more or less autonomous state.[38]
  2. The erosion of Portuguese military control over northern Mozambique during the Mozambican War of Independence allowed local guerrillas to establish a proto-state there, which survived until the war ended in 1974. Home to about a million people, the miniature insurgent proto-state was managed by FRELIMO's civilian wing and was able to provide administrative services, open trade relations with Tanzania, and even supervise the construction of its own schools and hospitals with foreign aid.[20]
  3. In course of the First Liberian Civil War, the Liberian central government effectively collapsed, allowing warlords to establish their own fiefs. One of the most powerful rebel leaders in Liberia, Charles Taylor, set up his own domain in a way resembling an actual state: He reorganised his militia into a military-like organisation (split into Army, Marines, Navy, and Executive Mansion Guard), established his de facto capital at Gbarnga, and created a civilian government and justice system under his control that were supposed to enforce law and order. The area under his control was commonly called "Taylorland" or "Greater Liberia" and even became somewhat stable and peaceful until it largely disintegrated in 1994/5 as result of attacks by rival militias. In the end, however, Taylor won the civil war and was elected President of Liberia, with his regime becoming the new central government.[68][69]
  4. See Tibetan sovereignty debate

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Bibliography

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