Rif Dimashq offensive (February–April 2018)

Area in Zamalka that was destroyed by the bombardment.

On the evening of 18 February 2018, heavy artillery and airstrikes began targeting the rebel-held East Ghouta enclave.[1] The Syrian Air Force launched large-scale air raids over the region, with warplanes reportedly striking rebel defensive positions, hospitals, and residential areas in and around the district towns of Douma, Hamouriyah, Saqba and Mesraba. Accompanying artillery shelling and rocket strikes pounded rebel territory.[47][48] Overall, 260 rocket and air-strikes were conducted during the day.[49] By the following day, the strikes had reportedly killed 94 civilians.[50] Concurrently, government troops were preparing for a ground assault, establishing positions on both the western and eastern axis of the pocket.[33][51] Early rebel retaliatory mortar attacks on central Damascus killed one civilian.[50] Around midnight between 19 and 20 February, the Russian Air Force joined the offensive as well, targeting several rebel-held districts.[22]

On 22 February, the Syrian Army dropped leaflets over Ghouta, calling on residents to leave the area and urging opposition fighters to hand themselves over.[52] Meanwhile, a total of 16 civilians had been killed and about 128 wounded in retaliatory rebel rocket attacks on Damascus between the 18 and 20 February.[53] On 24 February, despite an adopted resolution by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) on a 30-day ceasefire in Syria, it was reported that airstrikes continued after the vote.[54]

At around 8:30 a.m. local on the morning of 25 February,[55] hours after the United Nations Security Council called for a 30-day truce,[56] a ground assault began with the Syrian Army's 4th Division capturing multiple points around the Bashoura Air Defense Battalion on the southeastern front of the pocket on the Hazrama and Tal Farzat approach.[55] Shortly afterwards, it was reported that the Army captured the town of Al-Nashabiyah, the villages of Hazrama and Al-Salihiyah, and the hilltop of Tal Farzat from Jaysh al-Islam fighters – continuing the advance towards Hawsh Zariqiyah.[57][58] However, pro-government sources later reported Al-Nashabiyah and Hazrama had not been captured, but instead partially surrounded.[59][60] At around 10:00 am, an assault on a new axis commenced with Syrian Army units attacking the rebels on the Harasta-Arbin front in the northwestern part of the pocket.[61] The Army's 4th Division also pushed into the rebel-held Al-Ajami district of Harasta, capturing some buildings in the area.[62] Meanwhile, it was initially reported that the heavily fortified village of Hawsh Dawahra was also captured in the east of the pocket,[63] however it was later confirmed that the assaulting government troops were ambushed by the rebels, with up to 15 soldiers killed and a tank captured. The village remained under rebel control.[64] Among the army's weapons used to level entire swathes of rebel trenches and fire support positions in the assault was the UR-77 (УР-77) Mineclearing System.[65]

The same day as the ground operation started, a video surfaced of the Syrian Army's Brigadier General Suheil al-Hassan speaking to troops in Damascus, while being guarded by Russian and Syrian soldiers. During his speech, al-Hassan said: “Damascus awaits you, to dress her in victory… With God, we will be victorious, and with faith, we will be victorious. Remember that each one of you decided to fight to defend the truth, dignity, and to save Syria and its people”.[66] By the end of the day, Jaysh al-Islam claimed to have killed 70 pro-government fighters and captured 14 on the first day of the ground offensive.[67] In contrast, the UK-based pro-opposition activist group Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR) reported 13 soldiers and 6 rebels were killed,[68] while two soldiers were captured.[28]

On 25 February, the UN Security Council passed a resolution calling for a thirty-day humanitarian ceasefire.[69] Nonetheless, Syrian Army advances continued on 26 February, with the 4th Division capturing a large part of the Harasta orchards, including an elaborate tunnel complex, according to pro-government sources.[70] The advances were reported to be "notable".[71] Local opposition NGOs reported a chlorine attack on al-Shifaniyah, a town close to the front lines, killing a child.[72][73][74] The next day at 09:00 am, Russia called for a five hour truce. A "humanitarian corridor" was opened for civilians to leave the area; however, according to the Russian Ministry of Defence, it was shelled by rebel groups in order to prevent civilians from leaving the area, although this was denied by rebels. The Syrian Interim Government called the corridor a choice between “death under bombardment” or a forced displacement, and called for UN aid. The UN and other humanitarian organisations said that it was impossible to deliver aid under such conditions and called for the combatants to abide by its 30-day ceasefire.[69] A major pro-government air attack was reported in Douma that day.[75]

By 27 February, it was reported that the offensive had caused some 560 casualties in 10 days, including 107 children.[76]

A second five-hour truce was called by Russia on 28 February.[77] However, early that day, following a night-time operation, pro-government forces captured Hawsh Dawahra.[78][79][80] During the fighting for Hawsh Dawahra, government forces utilized a mobile bridge to cross a moat near Sifco Laboratories and seize rebel trenches.[81] The Army also made attempts to advance towards the town of Al-Shifouniyah,[78][82] where they made limited gains during the day.[83] It was later reported that Army troops managed to enter Al-Shifouniyah.[84][85] The next day, the Syrian army captured Bashoura Air Defense Base, south west of Hawsh Dawahra.[86]

After the third round of night-time assaults, government forces captured the village of Hawsh Al-Zarqiyah on 2 March, after which the Army started shelling the nearby town of Utaya.[79][87] Later in the day, the Army also captured the Battalion 274 base, south of Al-Shifouniyah.[88][89] Meanwhile, the rebels launched a counter-attack within Harasta, which went on for hours, resulting in numerous casualties on both sides.[90] The next day, the Army took control of Utaya, Al-Nashabiyah and Hazrama,[91][92] as well as most of Al-Shifouniyah. The Army also attacked the town of al-Rayhan in the northeastern part of the Ghouta pocket, but was repelled.[93] The advances took place following heavy fighting throughout the day for Utaya, with the army eventually seizing the town. Pro-government sources described the rebel defense of Utaya as "fanatical", and said the most violent clashes took place in the town's northern outskirts. Following the capture of Utaya, the rebel defense of Al-Nashabiyah and Hazrama quickly collapsed, leaving the two towns fully surrounded. Within one hour, the Army captured Al-Nashabiyah and Hazrama without resistance after it became clear the rebels had retreated from the towns in the final hours of fighting for Utaya[91][94] to avoid being besieged.[92] Hours later, it was reported that the Army was on the verge of also completely taking control of Al-Shifouniyah.[95] At this point, Michael Stephens of the London-based think tank Royal United Services Institute told The National that the fall of the rebel-held Eastern Ghouta pocket was "inevitable".[96] In the evening, the Army reportedly reached two new rebel-held towns, while the rebel supply line along the Douma-Al-Shifouniyah road came within range of their artillery.[97][98] During their advances over the previous several days, the Army had broken through a 12-kilometer defensive belt linking Al-Nashabiyah with Rayhan called "The Trench of Death".[99]

Syrian Army tanks advance during the offensive

On 4 March, the rebels managed to recapture large parts of Al-Shifouniyah in a counter-attack.[100][101] Meanwhile, the Army's Republican Guard captured the town of Beit Naem in the south of the pocket.[102][103] Following the advances over the previous two days, the Army started operations to split the Eastern Ghouta pocket into two parts, with 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) remaining for this to be accomplished.[104][105] A spokesman for Jaysh al-Islam claimed via Twitter that rebels had killed 150 soldiers since the previous night.[106] Contrary to this, the SOHR reported 12 soldiers had been killed.[107] Several hours after the capture of Beit Naem, the Army had retaken full control of Al-Shifouniyah.[108][98]

By 5 March, 35% of the Eastern Ghouta pocket had been taken by the Syrian Army,[98] which was 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) southeast of rebel-held Douma.[109] Pro-government sources reported that the 4th Armoured Division captured several farms to the northwest and came within one kilometer of cutting the Harasta-Douma road,[110] and that the government's Tiger Forces had made advances in the south of the pocket.[111] An aid convoy reached the region for the first time since the start of the offensive, but the government stripped it of some supplies (70% of its truckloads according to the World Health Organization[112]) and it was forced to withdraw without delivering aid after government shelling.[113][114]

Early on 6 March, most of al-Rayhan, in the northeast of the pocket, was reportedly captured after the army advanced north of Al-Shifouniyah.[115] In the afternoon, the Army's Tiger Forces captured the town of al-Muhammadiyah in the south of the pocket.[116] The same day, Russia offered the rebels and their families safe passage out of Eastern Ghouta. The rebels rejected the offer as "psychological warfare" and stated their defense lines had been re-established after crumbling in the first days of the offensive.[117] Farms around Mesraba, Beit Sawa and Hawsh Al-Ash'ari had been captured by the army by the end of the day.[118][119]

On 7 March, pro-government forces intensified their artillery and aerial bombardment.[120] The military captured Beit Sawa and Hawsh Al-Ash'ari, clearing the way for an attack on nearby rebel-held Mesraba. Later, Mesraba was being struck by "preparatory fire" before a planned infantry assault.[120][121] Civilians fled rural frontline areas into Douma, sheltering in basements.[120] By nightfall, pro-government forces had practically cut the Eastern Ghouta pocket in two with artillery fire.[117][122][123] At this point, government troops advancing from the east were between 1 and 1.3 kilometers from reaching the army's Harasta vehicle base on the pocket's western edge.[122][124] The SOHR said that at least 867 civilians had been killed by bombing and shelling in the offensive, with at least 62 killed on 7 March.[120]

In response to the Syrian Army's gains, the rebels reported they were deploying more guerrilla-style ambushes in lost territory in an attempt to stop further advances.[123] On 8 March, the military captured the town of Hawsh Qubaybat,[125] as well as the Aftris Air Defence Battalion base, near the rebel-held town of Aftris.[126][127]

On 10 March, after 24 hours of fighting,[128] the army seized Mesraba, as well as the Kilani gas station on the main highway,[129] thus splitting the Eastern Ghouta rebel enclave into three sections.[130] The three separated pockets were Harasta, Douma and the southern part of Eastern Ghouta.[129] The rebels denied Eastern Ghouta had been entirely split, but SOHR stated the roads between the three parts were indeed cut due to artillery fire.[131] Government shelling during the day reportedly focused on underground shelters and even mosques, many of which were being used as hiding spots for civilians.[132] Government forces also advanced towards the Harasta vehicle base, although they failed to capture Madyara, the last town separating them from the base.[133] The next day, the rebels continued to put up fierce resistance to prevent the linking up of government troops with the vehicle base.[134] Nevertheless, the Syrian Army eventually captured Madyara, thus officially physically splitting Eastern Ghouta in two and reaching the Harasta vehicle base.[135][136][131][137]

Syrian Army tanks park on a field in Eastern Ghouta, 12 March 2018

On 12 March, government forces were 200 to 300 meters from physically cutting off Harasta from Douma.[138] Later in the day, the military finished encircling Harasta, cutting it off from Douma.[139][140][141] The army had also captured the town of Aftris, thus fully clearing the rural areas of the southern part of Eastern Ghouta. The battle for the town lasted several days due to heavy rebel defenses which consisted of a wide anti-tank ditch and several well-fortified layers of trenches and tactical positions in and around it.[142] Government forces also shelled rebel positions on the Jobar axis during the day.[143] Meanwhile, tensions erupted in the rebel-held town of Kafr Batna, with the rebels shooting at civilian protesters who were demanding an evacuation deal with the government; one protester was killed, according to a local doctor.[144][145]

Rebel territory in Eastern Ghouta was now officially reduced to three pockets, one in the north around Douma held by Jaysh al-Islam; a second in the south around Hamouria held by Faylaq al-Rahman; and a third in the west around Harasta held by Ahrar al-Sham.[146]

On 14 March, the Syrian Army and allied militias stormed the northern neighborhood of Hamouriyah (under Faylaq al-Rahman control),[147] entered the southern part of al-Rayhan, captured "roughly" 40% of Jisreen from Faylaq al-Rahman, and shelled Arbin and Kafr Batna.[148][149] By the end of the day, according to pro-government sources, Al-Ahlam food factory and an army station to the south of Beit Sawa were also captured from the rebels. By the next day, the military was in control of the eastern half of Hamouriyah.[150]

On 15 March, nearly 20,000 civilians left Hamouriyah towards areas under government control.[151] Concurrently, the military captured Hamouriyah after the rebels withdrew to the town of Ein Tarma to the southwest.[152][153][146] During their retreat from Hamouriyah, according to government sources, the rebels left behind snipers and small hit-and-run units in the town in order to slow down the government's advance; the snipers were flushed out with tanks and surgical strikes.[154] Government troops also captured al-Rayhan in Douma from Jaysh al-Islam after two weeks of fighting.[155][156] On 16 March, the Syrian Army and allies fully captured and secured the town of Jisreen.[157] On 17 March, it was reported that government forces had taken full control of Kafr Batna and also captured the town of Saqba;[158] between 7,000 and 10,000 civilians left the combat zone for government-held areas.[159] However, the Syrian Army and allies secured full control over Kafr Batna the following day.[160]

On 21 March, Ahrar al-Sham agreed to surrender Harasta in exchange for evacuation to rebel territory in northwestern Syria, as well as an offer to be pardoned under reconciliation terms, with 1,500 Sham fighters and 6,000 of their family members expected to be evacuated to rebel-held areas in Idlib province by 22 March, starting with wounded civilians.[161] Syrian government military sources reported that 140 families were transported that day.[162] Buses carrying rebels and their families began leaving on 22 March, with about 30 buses evacuating around 1,500 people including about 400 rebels.[163] The next day, Syrian state TV claimed that the last group of rebels and their families were evacuated, with 3,000 people, including 1,000 rebels, having been evacuated from the town.[164]

On 20 March, the Syrian Army reported that it launched an assault on the Ein Tarma valley, quickly capturing most of the valley and reaching the southeastern outskirts of the Ein Tarma suburb.[165] By the next day, the military reported it was in control of 70 percent of the valley and was 500 meters from fully seizing it.[166] On the morning of 22 March, the army reported it fully secured the valley as the rebels retreated to the Ein Tarma suburb.[167] On 23 March, government forces captured most of the suburb, as the rebels withdrew towards Zamalka and Arbin.[168][169] The Syrian Army reportedly raised the Syrian government flag in Ein Tarma's center,[170] and had taken the nearby Hamza area.[171] Meanwhile, Russian aircraft were reported by opposition sources to have targeted Douma with burning phosphorus and cluster bombs, resulting in ten civilian deaths.[172]

On 23 March, after a deal was reached between the Syrian government and Faylaq al-Rahman, a ceasefire was officially enacted in the four major towns that still had a rebel presence - Arbin, Zamalka, Ein Tarma and Jobar. The ceasefire allowed for the immediate evacuation of wounded, with rebel fighters allowed to carry their light weapons and civilians their belongings. Under the deal, those who chose to remain were to be guaranteed safety from government reprisals as Russian military police would supervise the evacuations. The deal left one city, Douma, still under opposition control, which, according to The Guardian, had 150,000 civilians living there.[173] The transportation out of the four towns began on 24 March, with 950 leaving, and continued on 25 March, with over 5,400 displaced.[174] At least 6,749 people left the night between 26 and 27 March, the largest single-day evacuation from the region, according to Syrian state media.[175] On 31 March, the last of the evacuations was conducted and the Syrian Army declared victory in Eastern Ghouta, while the rebels that were still holding out in Douma were given an ultimatum to surrender by the end of the day.[176]

Tunnels in Douma.

Following the rebel retreat from the Eastern Ghouta towns, the military discovered a complex network of secret tunnels, including well-stocked underground hospitals and corridors used by the rebels to move weaponry and ammunition between all of the towns. One entry point to the tunnel network, located among shops and buildings on a war-ravaged street, was able allow vehicles to drive underground.[177] Many government troops were shocked at how many tunnels there were, as well as how long they were and how safe they were for those inside.[178] The Syrian Army reportedly discovered documents confirming a secret cooperation between a United States-based company and the rebels, with the company funding and regularly paying the rebels.

Destroyed Jaysh al-Islam tanks in Douma, April 2018

Intensive negotiations took place between the government and Jaysh al-Islam, who held Douma, the last rebel stronghold in the eastern Ghouta. With no progress in talks, on 28 March, government forces announced they were preparing a "huge" operation to take the town if rebels failed to evacuate.[179] On 1 April, government and Hezbollah sources reported that a deal had been reached between the Jaysh al-Islam rebels and the Syrian government in Douma to evacuate the wounded from the city to rebel territory in Idlib province.[180] By this point, Faylaq al-Rahman rebels who were stranded in Douma during the offensive had already been evacuated along with hundreds of civilians.[181][182] The same day, the SOHR reported a final agreement had also been reached for all rebels in Douma to be transferred to Jarabulus and Al-Bab in north-eastern Aleppo.[183] But the political leader of Jaysh al-Islam denied that they made an evacuation deal with the Syrian government and insisted that only the injured were agreed to be evacuated.[184] “Jaish al Islam has taken the decision to remain steadfast and the idea of leaving is not on the table,” the official said.[185] A local council member told the press that there was no deal for rebels to leave, only "humanitarian cases".[185] The government threatened to storm the city if rebels did not agree to surrender.[185]

The following day, buses arrived in Douma[184] and the evacuation of the injured began with 1,100 rebels and their family members being transported out of the city over the next 24 hours.[186] Some opposition activists reported that those evacuated were wounded fighters, while others said they were wounded civilians. Meanwhile, Jaysh al-Islam was reported to be divided over whether to fully evacuate the city, with hard-liners demanding they stay and fight.[187][188]

Russian Lieutenant General Sergei Rudskoi told the Al-Watan newspaper on 4 April that Douma would be under the control of the Syrian government soon. Meanwhile, SOHR stated that about 2,350 Jaysh al-Islam fighters had been evacuated. A video posted on Jaysh al-Islam's social media accounts showed its religious committee’s chairperson, Abu Abdelrahman Kaaka, confirm the deal and deny disagreement between their leadership and fighters.[188] However, evacuations were suspended on the next day. SANA stated it was due to internal disagreements within Jaysh al-Islam. SOHR stated the disagreements occurred due to measures taken by Turkish troops in areas where rebels were arriving. SANA and opposition sources stated 650 rebels and civilians were evacuated on 4 April.[189]

Russian and Syrian airplanes "heavily bombarded" Douma[190][191] for the first time in 10 days on 6 April. SOHR stated that two civilians were killed; and SANA stated that it was in response to rebel shelling on Damascus,[192] which had killed four.[193] In the wake of the airstrikes, the Syrian government launched an air and ground offensive on Douma,[194] with pro-government forces including Tiger Forces and Republican Guards advancing in the farms outside the town.[193][195] Overall, according to SOHR, 48 civilians had died in the shelling of Douma by 7 April.[195][196] The stated aim of the government advance was to force Jaysh Al-Islam to the negotiations table again.[196][191] Military sources said Russian and Syrian jets bombed the town again that night during a hiatus in the ground assault,[197] with airstrikes reported into the morning of the 7th.[198]

Government forces burn a flag of Jaysh al-Islam in Douma following the evacuation.

Government forces made advances in Douma's outskirts during 7 April,[199] advancing from the west, east and south.[200] According to pro-government sources, they made a significant advance in southern Douma, led by Tiger Forces, infiltrating Jaysh Al-Islam’s primary line of defense near the Misraba axis, and had reached Douma's southern outskirts.[201] Pro-government sources reported that on the eastern flank the army attempted to fully secure al-Rayhan, half of which was still under rebel control despite previous reports of capture by the military; Al-Rayhan had a high-density of rebel tunnels, well-disguised trenches and fire support positions on its western flank, offering stiff resistance to the army's advances - leaving about a dozen government tanks destroyed since the offensive began.[202] Pro-government sources also reported the Syrian Army's usage of Iranian drones while striking Douma.[203] By the afternoon, government sources reported the first residential buildings taken from the rebels by government troops led by Tiger Forces and loyalist Liwa al-Quds militia fighters.[204][205][206] In the evening of the 7th, pro-government sources reported that "huge explosions rocked" Douma as the Syrian Army "resumed intensified shelling and airstrikes".[207] Military sources said they finally halted airstrikes in the early hours of the 8th in order to restart negotiations with Jaysh Al-Islam.[208]

During these airstrikes, a chemical attack occurred on the afternoon/evening of 7 April, with Union of Medical Relief Organisations and other NGOs and rebel groups accusing the government of perpetrating it.[209][210][211] Syrian state media and Russia denied the accusations.[212][213] The following day, according to the Syrian military, a new ceasefire was declared after government troops captured al-Rayhan.[214] State media reported that Jaysh al-Islam had agreed to leave Douma. It added that buses had been dispatched to evacuate the rebels and the prisoners they had released under the deal.[215] A bus carried dozens of rebels and their families to northern Syria while the first batch of the rebels' prisoners were released simultaneously.[216]

Rebel equipment left behind in Douma.

The next day, Russian military police visited the site of the alleged chemical attack. A video by local activists showed a Russian armored personnel carrier arriving at the building where the projectile containing the chemical agent had reportedly landed.[217]

On 9 April, pro-government media reported that civilians stormed rebel warehouses that had been packed with food.[218] Heavy gunfire was also reported during the day as the rebels tried to spend all of their ammunition; the rebels also burned their tanks, heavy weapons and other military vehicles as they were evacuating.[219] They also released the remaining 100 out of 200 prisoners they had been holding in Douma. During the evacuation negotiations, according to pro-government sources, the rebels stated they had up to 5,000 prisoners.[220] Other reports placed the number of prisoners between 3,500 and 5,000, but state TV cited an official source as saying the rebels had exaggerated the number in order to strengthen their position during negotiations.[221] According to the pro-government outlet Al-Masdar, thousands of other prisoners were executed or thought to have died due to illness, hunger or fatigue while being forced to dig tunnels for the rebels.[220] Interfax, citing the Russian military, stated that 2,000 rebels had left on 10 April, while 4,000 more were also preparing to leave Douma.[222]

Syrian flag raised in Douma.

UN spokesman Stephane Dujarric stated that nearly 4,000 people were evacuated to Aleppo province on 11 April.[223] Before leaving, the rebels surrendered their heavy weapons, while the leader of Jaysh al-Islam, Essam al-Buwaydhani, left the city in the evening.[224] On 12 April, as the last of the rebels were leaving Douma,[225] Russian news agencies reported that the Syrian Army had taken full control of the city,[226] with the Syrian flag raised in a symbolic move in the town[227] and Russia declaring the Syrian government's victory in Eastern Ghouta.[228][229] Soon after, another batch of rebels left Douma.[230] The Russian defense ministry stated that Russian military police had begun patrolling Douma as stipulated in the evacuation deal, while regular Syrian troops had yet to enter it.[224]

SOHR reported that about 4,000 people were evacuated on 13 April. Hamza Bayraqdar, spokesman for Jaysh al-Islam, stated his fighters had all evacuated.[231] Meanwhile, the Syrian Army denied they had entered Douma at the time.[232] Around midnight between 13 and 14 April, about 100 buses evacuated the last batch of rebels and civilians,[233][234] following which Russian and Syrian government forces took complete control of Douma.[235][2]

State TV reported that Syrian police units had entered Douma in the morning of 14 April.[236] This move brought the entire Eastern Ghouta under government control[3][237] and effectively ended the near 7-year rebellion near Damascus.[2] In the evening, the Syrian Army declared the eastern suburbs of Damascus “fully liberated”.[238]