Chronic venous insufficiency

Chronic venous insufficiency

Signs and symptoms of CVI in the leg include the following:

• Varicose veins
• Itching (pruritus)
• Hyperpigmentation
• Phlebetic lymphedema[7]
• Chronic swelling of the legs and ankles
• Venous ulceration

CVI in the leg may cause the following:

• Venous stasis
• Ulcers[8]
• Stasis dermatitis,[8] also known as varicose eczema
• Contact dermatitis,[8] a disrupted epidermal barrier due to venous insufficiency, making patients more susceptible than the general population to contact sensitization and subsequent dermatitis.
• Atrophie blanche,[8] an end point of a variety of conditions that appears as atrophic plaques of ivory white skin with telangiectasias. It represents late sequelae of lipodermatosclerosis where the skin has lost its nutrient blood flow.
• Lipodermatosclerosis, [8] an indurated plaque in the medial malleolus.
• Malignancy,[8] malignant degeneration being a rare but important complication of venous disease since tumors that develop in the setting of an ulcer tend to be more aggressive.
• Pain,[8] a feature of venous disease often overlooked and commonly undertreated.
• Anxiety[8]
• Depression[8]
• Inflammation
• Cellulitis

Venous valves

The most common cause of chronic venous insufficiency is reflux of the venous valves of superficial veins.[2] This may in turn be caused by several conditions:

• Deep vein thrombosis (DVT), that is, blood clots in the deep veins. Chronic venous insufficiency caused by DVT may be described as postthrombotic syndrome. DVT triggers an inflammatory response subsequently injuring the vein wall.[6]
• Superficial vein thrombosis.
• Phlebitis
• May–Thurner syndrome. This is a rare condition in which blood clots occur in the iliofemoral vein due to compression of the blood vessels in the leg. The specific problem is compression of the left common iliac vein by the overlying right common iliac artery. Many May-Thurner compressions are overlooked when there is no blood clot. More and more of them get nowadays diagnosed and treated (by stenting) due to advanced imaging techniques.[9]

Deep and superficial vein thrombosis may in turn be caused by thrombophilia, which is an increased propensity of forming blood clots.

Arteriovenous fistula (an abnormal connection or passageway between an artery and a vein) may cause chronic venous insufficiency even with working vein valves.

B-flow ultrasonograph over a valve of the great saphenous vein, showing a venous reflux (flow toward right in the image).

History and examination by a clinician for characteristic signs and symptoms are sufficient in many cases in ruling out systemic causes of venous hypertension such as hypervolemia and heart failure.[10] A duplex ultrasound (doppler ultrasonography and b-mode) can detect venous obstruction or valvular incompetence as the cause, and is used for planning venous ablation procedures, but it is not necessary in suspected venous insufficiency where surgical intervention is not indicated.[10][6]

Insufficiency within a venous segment is defined as reflux of more than 0.5 seconds with distal compression. Invasive venography can be used in patients who may require surgery or have suspicion of venous stenosis. Other modalities that may be employed are: ankle-brachial index to exclude arterial pathology, air or photoplethysmography, intravascular ultrasound, and ambulatory venous pressures, which provides a global assessment of venous competence. Venous plethysmography can assess for reflux and muscle pump dysfunction but the test is laborious and rarely done.[6]

The venous filling time after the patient is asked to stand up from a seated position also is used to assess for CVI. Rapid filling of the legs less than 20 seconds is abnormal.[6]

Classification

Acute ulcer (45 x 30 mm).

CEAP classification is based on Clinical, Etiological (causal), Anatomical, and Pathophysiological factors.[11] According to Widmer Classification for assessment of chronic venous insufficiency (CVI), diagnosis of chronic venous insufficiency is clearly differentiated from varicose veins.[12] It has been developed to guide decision-making in chronic venous insufficiency evaluation and treatment.[6]

The CEAP classification for CVI is as follows:

• Clinical
  • C0: no obvious feature of venous disease
  • C1: the presence of reticular or spider veins
  • C2: Obvious varicose veins
  • C3: Presence of edema but no skin changes
  • C4: skin discoloration, pigmentation
  • C5: Ulcer that has healed
  • C6: Acute ulcer
• Etiology
  • Primary
  • Secondary (trauma, birth control pill)
  • Congenital (Klipper trenaunay)
  • No cause is known
• Anatomic
  • Superficial
  • Deep
  • Perforator
  • No obvious anatomic location
• Pathophysiology
  • Obstruction, thrombosis
  • Reflux
  • Obstruction and reflux
  • No venous pathology

CVI is not a benign disorder and, with its progression, can lead to morbidity. Venous ulcers are common and very difficult to treat. Chronic venous ulcers are painful and debilitating. Even with treatment, recurrences are common if venous hypertension persists. Nearly 60% develop phlebitis which often progresses to deep vein thrombosis in more than 50% of patients. The venous insufficiency can also lead to severe hemorrhage. Surgery for CVI remains unsatisfactory despite the availability of numerous procedures.[6]