Post-Ebola virus syndrome

Post-Ebola virus syndrome
Other names: Post Ebola syndrome
Ebola virus particles (blue) attacking a cell (yellow)
SpecialtyInfectious disease
SymptomsChest pain, fatigue, hearing loss[1]
CausesEVD
Diagnostic methodNeurological observation[2]
  • Video summary (script)

Post-Ebola virus syndrome, also known as post-Ebola syndrome, is a post-viral syndrome that may affect those who have recovered Ebola.[3] Symptoms may include joint and muscle pain, eye problems, including blindness, and various neurological problems. Sometimes symptoms are so severe that the person is unable to work.[4] Although similar symptoms have been reported among those who have recovered following prior outbreaks, the term only came into use in 2014.[5]

Signs and symptoms

Articles related to the
West African
Ebola virus epidemic
Overview
Nations with widespread cases
Other affected nations
Other outbreaks

Researchers have been aware of a group of symptoms that frequently followed Ebola virus disease for 20 years, but it became more widely reported with the large number of survivors of the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa in 2014.[3][6][7][8][2]

Post Ebola syndrome may manifest as joint pain, muscle pain, chest pain, tiredness, hearing loss, hair loss, cessation of menstruation, and poor long term health. Some survivors report neurological issues including memory problems and anxiety attacks. Vision loss is also frequent, along with eye pain, inflammation, and blurred vision.[9] Two papers in 2015 reported symptoms including lethargy, joint pains, hair loss, and vision loss, frequently to the point of near blindness, and uveitis.[10][11]

Cause

The cause is having been infected by the Ebola virus disease.[1]

Mechanism

Although, there is some progress, further research is required to provide more answers about post-Ebola syndrome.[12]

Studies from previous outbreaks reveal that the virus is able to survive for months after recovery in some parts of the body such as the eyes and testes, where the immune system cannot reach. It is not known if the neurologic symptoms seen in survivors are a direct result of the virus or, instead, triggered by the immune response to the infection. It is known that Ebola can trigger a cytokine storm that can cause bleeding, including in the brain, which may explain some neurological symptoms.[13]

Viral persistence

Spermatozoa

Ebola virus was identified in almost 3 out of 4 seminal fluid samples (18 survivors) almost 4 months after initial infection, with the last positive samples being more than 6 months (203 days) after infection had occurred.[14] Another aspect of survivors of the Ebola virus, is that it could become sexually transmitted, as the virus is present in semen nine months after the individuals are declared free of Ebola.[15] A 2017 study found the virus in the semen of some men after more than two years following the recovery from the acute infection[16] and in one case, Ebola viral RNA was identified up to 40 months after illness.[17]

At the start of 2021 an outbreak of EVD that caused 18 cases and 9 deaths in Guinea is thought to be due to a West Africa Ebola outbreak survivor. This individual apparently infected a woman more than 5 years after he himself had incurred the infection[18]

Diagnosis

In terms of diagnosis, the individual may show sensitivity to light or eye redness when ocular problems are suspected. Neurologically the individual's coordination, gait and frontal release signs should be observed.[2]

Management

Management depends on the symptoms, for example, if the individual has muscular-skeletal pain then paracetamol (acetaminophen) may be used. If there are eye problems, then prednisone and cyclopentolate may be given.[2]

  • Prednisone-chemical structure
    Prednisone-chemical structure
  • Cyclopentolate -chemical structure
    Cyclopentolate -chemical structure
  • Paracetamol-chemical structure
    Paracetamol-chemical structure

History

Main article: List of Ebola outbreaks

The following list indicates those Ebola outbreaks or epidemics that have been major (the Ebola survivors for example in the West Africa Ebola virus outbreak were about 16,000 and the Kivu Ebola epidemic resulted in about 1,200 survivors), this is not to say other Ebola outbreaks have not occurred, they simply are not listed here and have been minor

Date Country Virus Human cases Human deaths Case fatality rate/Percent survived Description
Jun–Nov 1976  Sudan SUDV 284 151 53%/47% Occurred in Nzara (the source town), Maridi, Tumbura, and Juba (cities in present-day South Sudan). The index cases were workers in a cotton factory. The disease was spread by close contact with an acute case, usually from patients to their nurses. Many medical care personnel were infected.[19]
Aug 1976  Zaire EBOV 318 280 88%/12%
Main article: 1976 Zaire Ebola virus outbreak
Occurred in Yambuku and surrounding areas in what was then Zaire (present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo DRC). It spread through personal contact and by use of contaminated needles and syringes in hospitals and clinics.[20]
Aug–Sep 1979  Sudan SUDV 34 22 65%/35% Occurred in Nzara and Maridi. This was a recurrent outbreak at the same site as the 1976 Sudan epidemic.[21]
Dec 1994–Feb 1995  Gabon EBOV 52 31 60%/40% Occurred in Makokou and gold-mining camps deep in the rainforest along the Ivindo River. Until 1995, the outbreak was incorrectly classified as yellow fever.[22]
May–Jul 1995  Zaire EBOV 315 254 81%/19% Occurred in Kikwit and surrounding areas. The outbreak was traced to a patient who worked in a forest adjoining the city. The epidemic spread through families and hospital admissions.[23][24]
Jan–Apr 1996  Gabon EBOV 31 21 68%/32% Occurred in the village of Mayibout 2 and neighboring areas. A chimpanzee found dead in the forest was eaten by villagers hunting for food. Nineteen people involved in the butchery of the animal became ill, and other cases occurred in their family members.[22]
Jul 1996–Mar 1997  Gabon EBOV 60 45 75%/25% Occurred in the Booué area with transport of patients to Libreville. The index case-patient was a hunter who lived in a forest timber camp. The disease was spread by close contact with infected persons. A dead chimpanzee found in the forest at the time was determined to be infected.[22]
Oct 2000–Jan 2001  Uganda SUDV 425 224 53%/47% Occurred in the Gulu, Masindi, and Mbarara districts of Uganda. The three greatest risks associated with Sudan virus infection were attending funerals of case-patients, having contact with case-patients in one's family, and providing medical care to case-patients without using adequate personal protective measures.[25] Victims included Matthew Lukwiya.
Oct 2001–Jul 2002  Gabon EBOV 65 53 82%/18% Occurred on both sides of the border between Gabon and the Republic of the Congo.
Oct 2001–Jul 2002 ROC EBOV 59 44 75%/25% Occurred on both sides of the border between Gabon and the Republic of the Congo (RC). This outbreak included the first reported occurrence of Ebola virus disease in the RC.[26]
Dec 2002–Apr 2003 ROC EBOV 143 128 90%/10% Occurred in the districts of Mbomo and Kelle in the Cuvette-Ouest Department.[27]
Nov–Dec 2003 ROC EBOV 35 29 83%/17% Occurred in Mbomo and Mbandza villages, located in Mbomo District in the Cuvette-Ouest Department.[28]
Apr–Jun 2004  Sudan SUDV 17 7 41%/59% Occurred in Yambio county in Western Equatoria of southern Sudan (present-day South Sudan). This outbreak was concurrent with an outbreak of measles in the same area, and several suspected EVD cases were reclassified later as measles cases.[29]
Apr-May 2005 ROC EBOV 12 10 83%/17% Occurred in the Etoumbi district of Cuvette Ouest Department of the Republic of the Congo [30]
Aug–Nov 2007 DRC EBOV 264 187 71%/29%
Dec 2007–Jan 2008  Uganda BDBV 149 37 25%/75% Occurred in the Bundibugyo District in western Uganda. This was the first identification of the Bundibugyo virus (BDBV).[31]
Dec 2008–Feb 2009 DRC EBOV 32 14 45%/55% Occurred in the Mweka and Luebo health zones of the Kasaï-Occidental province.[32]
Jun–Aug 2012  Uganda SUDV 24 17 71%/29% Occurred in the Kibaale District.[33]
Jun–Nov 2012 DRC BDBV 57 29 51%/49% Occurred in the Orientale Province.[34]
Dec 2013–Jan 2016 Widespread:
Template:Country data Liberia
Template:Country data Sierra Leone
Template:Country data Guinea
Limited and local:
 Nigeria
 Mali
 United States
 Senegal
 Spain
 United Kingdom
 Italy		 EBOV 28,616 11,310 70–71% (general)[35][36][37]

However, the general estimated case fatality rate (70.8 percent) for this epidemic differs from the ratio of the number of deaths divided by that of cases due to the estimation method used. Current infections have not run their course, and the estimate may be poor if reporting is biased towards severe cases.
57–59% (among hospitalized patients)[38]
Main article: West African Ebola virus epidemic
This was the most severe Ebola outbreak in recorded history in regards to both the number of human cases and fatalities. It began in Guéckédou, Guinea, in December 2013 and spread abroad.[39][40] Flare-ups of the disease continued into 2016,[41] and the outbreak was declared over on 9 June 2016.
Aug–Nov 2014 DRC EBOV 66[42] 49[42] 74%/26%
Main article: 2014 Democratic Republic of the Congo Ebola virus outbreak
Occurred in Équateur province. Outbreak detected 24 August and, as of 28 October 2014, the WHO said that twenty days had passed since the last reported case was discharged and no new contacts were being followed.[42][43] Declared over on 15 November 2014.[44]
May–Jul 2018 DRC EBOV 54 33 61%/39%
Main article: 2018 Équateur province Ebola outbreak

On 8 May 2018, the government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo reported two confirmed cases of Ebola infection in the northwestern town of Bikoro.[45] On 17 May, a case was confirmed in the city of Mbandaka.[46] Health authorities were planning to ring vaccinate with rVSV-ZEBOV, a recently developed experimental Ebola vaccine, to contain the outbreak.[46][47] The outbreak was ongoing as of 24 June 2018, in 2014 a different area of Equateur province was affected[48][49] On 24 July 2018 the outbreak was declared over.[50][51][52][53]

Aug 2018–Jun 2020 Widespread:
DRC
Limited and local:
 Uganda		 EBOV 3,470[54][55] 2,280[54][55] 66%/34%
Main article: Kivu Ebola epidemic

On 1 August 2018, the Democratic Republic of the Congo Ministry of Health declared an outbreak when 4 individuals tested positive for the Ebola virus.[56][57][58][59] On 11 June 2019, the WHO confirmed that a five-year-old boy in Uganda died after being diagnosed with Ebola.[60][61] On 25 June 2020, the second biggest EVD outbreak ever was declared over.[62]

May 2020–Nov 2020 DRC EBOV 130 55 42%/58%
Main article: 2020 Équateur province Ebola outbreak
On 31 May 2020, the DRC Health Minister Eteni Longondo announced an additional Ebola outbreak, separate to the ongoing Kivu Ebola epidemic. The outbreak originated in Équateur province (which was also the location of the 2018 Équateur province Ebola outbreak).[63][64][65] By 17 October 2020, the case count was 128 with 53 fatalities.[66]

By 18 November 2020, the World Health Organization and the Congolese government had not received reports of any cases of Ebola in Équateur province or all of the DRC for 42 days.[67] When the outbreak was declared over, there were 130 reported cases and 55 reported fatalities due to the virus.[68]

Feb–May 2021 DRC EBOV 12 6 50%/50% On 6 February 2021, an outbreak was declared in Butembo in the North Kivu province by the Ministry of Public Health of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[1] By 3 May 2021, the outbreak was declared over.[69]
Feb–Jun 2021 Template:Country data Guinea EBOV 23 12 52%/48% First Ebola cases and deaths in the country since 2016.[70] The first cases were confirmed on 14 February 2021, and by 9 April 2021, there were 23 reported cases of the virus, with 12 fatalities and 9 recoveries.[71] Scientists concluded that the likely source of the outbreak was a man who had survived the 2013-2016 West African epidemic but had unknowingly harbored the Ebola virus in his body, eventually transmitting it to somebody in his community, although the first known case of this current outbreak was a female nurse who had died on 28 January 2021.[72] The outbreak was declared over on 19 June 2021.[73]
Oct–Dec 2021 DRC EBOV 11 9 82%/18% On 8 October 2021, the Ministry of Public Health for the Democratic Republic of the Congo reported a new laboratory confirmed case of Ebola virus disease, ten more related cases were later confirmed.[74] On 16 December the outbreak was declared over.[75]

Research

African continent-Comparison of predictions for zoonotic niche of Ebola virus

Researchers from the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) and Liberian research partners are doing a 5-year follow-up study of 1500 Ebola survivors in Liberia. Survivors will be evaluated every 6 months; as of October 2017, two follow-ups have been performed. Researchers will track relapses and viral persistence, characterize sequelae in various bodily systems, and do clinical studies on pharmacologic interventions and vaccines.[76]

PREVAIL III (Partnership for Research on Ebola Vaccines in Liberia III), a study of survivors and their contacts, a collaboration between NIAID and Liberia, was planned in late 2014.[77]

Early results described abdominal, chest, neurologic, musculoskeletal, and ocular[78] challenges faced by survivors.[17]

PREVAIL IV examined if a medication, GS-5734, could help men with persistent Ebola virus RNA in semen to eliminate it,[79] and thereby reduce the potential risk for sexual transmission.

PREVAIL VII examined if survivors of Ebola virus disease had evidence of Ebola virus RNA in aqueous humor and outcomes of cataract surgery relative to the local population.[80]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 "Outbreak Brief 1: Ebola virus disease (EVD) Outbreak". Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. 24 February 2021. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2021.
  2. 1 2 3 4 "Clinical care for survivors of Ebola virus disease" (PDF). WHO. World Health Organization. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 August 2016. Retrieved 5 August 2016.
  3. 1 2 Scott JT, Sesay FR, Massaquoi TA, Idriss BR, Sahr F, Semple MG (April 2016). "Post-Ebola Syndrome, Sierra Leone". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 22 (4): 641–6. doi:10.3201/eid2204.151302. PMC 4806950. PMID 26983037.
  4. ↑ Burki TK (July 2016). "Post-Ebola syndrome". The Lancet. Infectious Diseases. 16 (7): 780–781. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(15)00259-5. PMID 27352759.
  5. ↑ Yasmin S. "Why Ebola Survivors Struggle with New Symptoms". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 2020-05-29. Retrieved 2020-05-27.
  6. ↑ Neporent L (2014-09-03). "'Post-Ebola Syndrome' Persists After Virus Is Cured, Doctor Says". ABC news. Archived from the original on 2015-06-08. Retrieved 12 May 2015.
  7. ↑ Farge E, Giahyue JH (2015-02-04). "Free from Ebola, survivors complain of new syndrome". Reuters. Dakar, Monrovia. Retrieved 12 May 2015.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  8. ↑ Grady D (2015-05-07). "After Nearly Claiming His Life, Ebola Lurked in a Doctor's Eye". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2015-05-11. Retrieved 12 May 2015.
  9. ↑ Carod-Artal FJ (3 October 2015). "Post-Ebolavirus disease syndrome: what do we know?". Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy. 13 (10): 1185–7. doi:10.1586/14787210.2015.1079128. PMID 26293407.
  10. ↑ Varkey JB, Shantha JG, Crozier I, Kraft CS, Lyon GM, Mehta AK, et al. (June 2015). "Persistence of Ebola Virus in Ocular Fluid during Convalescence". The New England Journal of Medicine. 372 (25): 2423–7. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1500306. hdl:2328/35704. PMC 4547451. PMID 25950269.
  11. ↑ Epstein L, Wong KK, Kallen AJ, Uyeki TM (December 2015). "Post-Ebola Signs and Symptoms in U.S. Survivors". The New England Journal of Medicine. 373 (25): 2484–6. doi:10.1056/NEJMc1506576. PMID 26672870.
  12. ↑ "Ebola survivors: What happens next?". Foundation for Biomedical Research. Archived from the original on 10 July 2015. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
  13. ↑ Clark DV, Kibuuka H, Millard M, Wakabi S, Lukwago L, Taylor A, et al. (August 2015). "Long-term sequelae after Ebola virus disease in Bundibugyo, Uganda: a retrospective cohort study". The Lancet. Infectious Diseases. 15 (8): 905–12. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(15)70152-0. PMID 25910637. Archived from the original on 2021-01-27. Retrieved 2021-05-09.
  14. ↑ Brainard J, Pond K, Hooper L, Edmunds K, Hunter P (February 2016). "Presence and Persistence of Ebola or Marburg Virus in Patients and Survivors: A Rapid Systematic Review". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 10 (2): e0004475. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0004475. PMC 4771830. PMID 26927697.
  15. ↑ "Preliminary study finds that Ebola virus fragments can persist in the semen of some survivors for at least nine months". WHO. World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 7 December 2016. Retrieved 5 August 2016.
  16. ↑ Fischer WA, Brown J, Wohl DA, Loftis AJ, Tozay S, Reeves E, et al. (2017). "Ebola Virus Ribonucleic Acid Detection in Semen More Than Two Years After Resolution of Acute Ebola Virus Infection". Open Forum Infectious Diseases. 4 (3): ofx155. doi:10.1093/ofid/ofx155. PMC 5897835. PMID 29670927.
  17. 1 2 Sneller MC, Reilly C, Badio M, Bishop RJ, Eghrari AO, Moses SJ, et al. (March 2019). "A Longitudinal Study of Ebola Sequelae in Liberia". The New England Journal of Medicine. 380 (10): 924–934. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1805435. PMC 6478393. PMID 30855742.
  18. ↑ Kupferschmidt, Kai (12 March 2021). "New Ebola outbreak likely sparked by a person infected 5 years ago". Science. doi:10.1126/science.abi4876. Archived from the original on 18 March 2021. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
  19. ↑ "Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Sudan, 1976. Report of a WHO/International Study Team". Bull World Health Organ. 56 (2): 247–270. 1978. PMC 2395561. PMID 307455.
  20. ↑ "Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Zaire, 1976". Bull World Health Organ. 56 (2): 271–293. 1978. PMC 2395567. PMID 307456.
  21. ↑ Baron, Roy C.; McCormick, Joseph B.; Zubeir, Osman A. (1983). "Ebola virus disease in southern Sudan: hospital dissemination and intrafamilial spread". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 61 (6): 997–1003. PMC 2536233. PMID 6370486.
  22. 1 2 3 Georges, Alain-Jean; Leroy, Eric M.; Renaut, André A.; Benissan, Carol Tevi; Nabias, René J.; Ngoc, Minh Trinh; Obiang, Paul I.; Lepage, J. P. M.; Bertherat, Eric J.; Bénoni, David D.; Wickings, E. Jean; Amblard, Jacques P.; Lansoud-Soukate, Joseph M.; Milleliri, J. M.; Baize, Sylvain; Georges-Courbot, Marie-Claude (1999). "Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever Outbreaks in Gabon, 1994–1997: Epidemiologic and Health Control Issues". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 179: S65–S75. doi:10.1086/514290. PMID 9988167.
  23. ↑ Khan, Ali S.; Tshioko, F. Kweteminga; Heymann, David L.; Le Guenno, Bernard; Nabeth, Pierre; Kerstiëns, Barbara; Fleerackers, Yon; Kilmarx, Peter H.; Rodier, Guenael R.; Nkuku, Okumi; Rollin, Pierre E.; Sanchez, Anthony; Zaki, Sherif R.; Swanepoel, Robert; Tomori, Oyetowl; Nichol, Stuart T.; Peters, C. J.; Muyembe-Tamfum, J. J.; Ksiazek, Thomas G. (1999). "The Reemergence of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 179: S76–S86. doi:10.1086/514306. PMID 9988168.
  24. ↑ Roels, T. H.; Bloom, A. S.; Buffington, J.; Muhungu, G. L.; MacKenzie, W. R.; Khan, A. S.; Ndambi, R.; Noah, D. L.; Rolka, H. R.; Peters, C. J.; Ksiazek, T. G. (1999). "Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever, Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995: Risk Factors for Patients without a Reported Exposure". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 179: S92–S97. doi:10.1086/514286. PMID 9988170.
  25. ↑ Okware, S. I.; Omaswa, F. G.; Zaramba, S.; Opio, A.; Lutwama, J. J.; Kamugisha, J.; Rwaguma, E. B.; Kagwa, P.; Lamunu, M. (2002). "An outbreak of Ebola in Uganda". Tropical Medicine & International Health. 7 (12): 1068–1075. doi:10.1046/j.1365-3156.2002.00944.x. PMID 12460399.
  26. ↑ "Outbreak(s) of Ebola haemorrhagic fever, Congo and Gabon, October 2001–July 2002". Relevé Épidémiologique Hebdomadaire. Canada Communicable Disease Report. 29 (15): 223–228. 1 August 2003. PMID 15571171. Archived from the original on 25 November 2007. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
  27. ↑ Formenty, P.; Libama, F.; Epelboin, A.; Allarangar, Y.; Leroy, E.; Moudzeo, H.; Tarangonia, P.; Molamou, A.; Lenzi, M.; Ait-Ikhlef, K.; Hewlett, B.; Roth, C.; Grein, T. (2003). "Outbreak of Ebola hemorrhagic fever in the Republic of the Congo, 2003: a new strategy?". Médecine Tropicale: Revue du Corps de Santé Colonial (in français). 63 (3): 291–295. PMID 14579469. Archived from the original on 2022-02-07. Retrieved 2022-02-06.
  28. ↑ "Ebola haemorrhagic fever in the Republic of the Congo – Update 6". World Health Organization. 6 January 2004. Archived from the original on 10 January 2004.
  29. ↑ "Outbreak of Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Yambio, south Sudan, April–June 2004". Weekly Epidemiological Record. 80 (43): 370–375. 2005. PMID 16285261.
  30. ↑ Nkoghe, Dieudonné; Kone, Mamadou Lamine; Yada, Adamou; Leroy, Eric (August 2011). "A limited outbreak of Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Etoumbi, Republic of Congo, 2005". Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 105 (8): 466–472. doi:10.1016/j.trstmh.2011.04.011. ISSN 1878-3503. PMID 21605882.
  31. ↑ Towner, J. S.; Sealy, T. K.; Khristova, M. L.; Albariño, C. S. G.; Conlan, S.; Reeder, S. A.; Quan, P. L.; Lipkin, W. I.; Downing, R.; Tappero, J. W.; Okware, S.; Lutwama, J.; Bakamutumaho, B.; Kayiwa, J.; Comer, J. A.; Rollin, P. E.; Ksiazek, T. G.; Nichol, S. T. (2008). Basler, Christopher F. (ed.). "Newly Discovered Ebola Virus Associated with Hemorrhagic Fever Outbreak in Uganda". PLOS Pathogens. 4 (11): e1000212. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000212. PMC 2581435. PMID 19023410.
  32. ↑ Global Alert and Response (17 February 2009). "End of Ebola outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo". Disease Outbreak News. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 19 February 2009. Retrieved 27 February 2011.
  33. ↑ World Health Organization (4 October 2012). "End of Ebola outbreak in Uganda". Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 26 March 2014. Retrieved 25 March 2014.
  34. ↑ Centers For Disease Control. "Outbreak Postings". Centers for Disease Control. Archived from the original on 2019-05-16. Retrieved 2014-07-11.
  35. ↑ WHO Ebola Response Team (23 September 2014). "Ebola Virus Disease in West Africa – The First 9 Months of the Epidemic and Forward Projections". New England Journal of Medicine. 371 (16): 1481–1495. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1411100. PMC 4235004. PMID 25244186.
  36. ↑ "Case Fatality Rate for ebolavirus". Ebola data and statistics. 2015. Archived from the original on 29 August 2014. Retrieved 28 January 2015.
  37. ↑ "Ebola response roadmap – Situation report" (PDF). World Health Organization. 31 December 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 December 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2015. The reported case fatality rate in the three intensetransmission countries among all cases for whom a definitive outcome is known is 71 percent
  38. ↑ "Ebola Situation report". Ebola data and statistics. World Health Organization. 12 January 2015. Archived from the original on 5 September 2014. Retrieved 28 January 2015. ... [I]s between 57% and 59% in the 3 intense-transmission countries, with no detectable improvement since the onset of the epidemic.
  39. ↑ "Tracing Ebola's Breakout to an African 2-Year-Old". New York Times. 9 August 2014. Archived from the original on 5 January 2019. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
  40. ↑ "Toll in West Africa Ebola Epidemic Reaches 2,630, Says WHO." Fox News. FOX News Network, 18 September 2014. Web. 19 September 2014". Fox News. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 6 February 2022.
  41. ↑ "WHO Director-General addresses the Executive Board". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 26 January 2016. Retrieved 27 January 2016.
  42. 1 2 3 "Ebola Response Roadmap Situation Report Update" (PDF). World Health Organization. 29 October 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 October 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
  43. ↑ "Update on the Ebola virus disease in DRC, No. 5, 30 August 2014". UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. 30 August 2014. Archived from the original on 15 May 2019. Retrieved 2014-09-02.
  44. ↑ "Congo declares its Ebola outbreak over". reuters. 15 November 2014. Archived from the original on 7 November 2020. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
  45. ↑ "Congo health ministry confirms 2 Ebola cases in new outbreak". ABC News. Archived from the original on 2018-05-08. Retrieved 2018-05-08.
  46. 1 2 "Ebola Virus Disease: Democratic Republic of the Congo: External Situation Report 3" (PDF). reliefweb. World Health Organization. 18 May 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 May 2018. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
  47. ↑ "Ebola Erupts Again in Africa, Only Now There's a Vaccine". The New York Times. 2018-05-11. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2018-05-11. Retrieved 2018-05-11.
  48. ↑ "Democratic Republic of Congo: Ebola Virus Disease – External Situation Report 13". ReliefWeb. Archived from the original on 16 June 2019. Retrieved 29 June 2018.
  49. ↑ "2018 Democratic Republic of the Congo, Bikoro | Democratic Republic of Congo | Ebola (Ebola Virus Disease) | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 29 May 2018. Archived from the original on 30 May 2018. Retrieved 29 May 2018.
  50. ↑ "Democratic Republic of Congo: Ebola Virus Disease – External Situation Report 15". ReliefWeb. Archived from the original on 16 June 2019. Retrieved 12 July 2018.
  51. ↑ "Ebola RDC – Evolution de la riposte de l'épidémie d'Ebola au Vendredi 13 juillet 2018". us13.campaign-archive.com. Archived from the original on 26 November 2018. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
  52. ↑ "Media Advisory: Expected end of Ebola outbreak". ReliefWeb. Archived from the original on 23 July 2018. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
  53. ↑ "Ebola virus disease – Democratic Republic of the Congo: Disease outbreak news, 25 July 2018". ReliefWeb. Archived from the original on 26 July 2018. Retrieved 26 July 2018.
  54. 1 2 "Operations Dashboard for ArcGIS". who.maps.arcgis.com. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 20 February 2020.
  55. 1 2 "Ebola Virus Disease Outbreak Uganda Situation Reports" (PDF). WHO.Afro.int. WHO. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 June 2019. Retrieved 18 June 2019.
  56. ↑ Editorial, Reuters (August 2018). "Congo declares new Ebola outbreak in eastern province". Reuters. Archived from the original on 24 June 2020. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
  57. ↑ "Congo announces 4 new Ebola cases in North Kivu province". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2 August 2018. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
  58. ↑ "Cluster of presumptive Ebola cases in North Kivu in the Democratic Republic of the Congo". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 17 June 2019. Retrieved 2 August 2018.
  59. ↑ "The Democratic Republic of the Congo: Ebola Virus Disease Outbreak – Epidemiological Situation DG ECHO Daily Map | 03/08/2018". ReliefWeb. Archived from the original on 3 August 2018. Retrieved 4 August 2018.
  60. ↑ "Confirmation of case of ebola virus disease in Uganda". WHO | Regional Office for Africa. Archived from the original on 12 June 2019. Retrieved 12 June 2019.
  61. ↑ Hunt, Katie; Swails, Brent (12 June 2019). "Ebola outbreak enters 'truly frightening phase' as it turns deadly in Uganda". CNN. Archived from the original on 2019-06-12. Retrieved 2019-06-12.
  62. ↑ "DR Congo's deadliest Ebola outbreak declared over". BBC News. 25 June 2020. Archived from the original on 31 December 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2020.
  63. ↑ Swanson, Ian (1 June 2020). "Second Ebola outbreak strikes Congo". TheHill. Archived from the original on 7 June 2020. Retrieved 1 June 2020.
  64. ↑ "New Ebola outbreak detected in northwest Democratic Republic of the Congo; WHO surge team supporting the response". www.who.int. Archived from the original on 10 October 2020. Retrieved 1 June 2020.
  65. ↑ "Ebola resurfaces in Équateur Province, north-western Democratic Republic of the Congo". UNICEF. 1 June 2020. Archived from the original on 9 June 2020. Retrieved 7 June 2020.
  66. ↑ "DR Congo's latest Ebola outbreak 'under control'". medicalxpress.com. Archived from the original on 18 October 2020. Retrieved 19 October 2020.
  67. ↑ "For the first time since 2018, there is no active Ebola outbreak in the DRC". U.S. Embassy in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 2020-11-18. Archived from the original on 2020-12-11. Retrieved 2020-11-18.
  68. ↑ "UNICEF welcomes end of Ebola outbreak in the Equateur Province of the DRC". www.unicef.org. Archived from the original on 18 November 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2020.
  69. ↑ "COMMUNICABLE DISEASE THREATS REPORT Week 18, 2-8 May 2021" (PDF). European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. 7 May 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2021.
  70. ↑ Maddipatla, Manojna (1 March 2021). "Three new Ebola cases confirmed in Congo, two in Guinea". metro. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
  71. ↑ "Outbreak Brief 7: Ebola virus disease (EVD) Outbreak". Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. 6 April 2021. Archived from the original on 9 April 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  72. ↑ Branswell, Helen (12 March 2021). "Bombshell analysis traces new Ebola outbreak to survivor of West Africa crisis". STAT. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
  73. ↑ "WHO declares end to second Ebola outbreak in Guinea". Al Jazeera. 19 June 2021. Archived from the original on 19 June 2021. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
  74. ↑ "WEEKLY BULLETIN ON OUTBREAKS AND OTHER EMERGENCIES Week 51: 13 – 19 December 2021" (PDF). WHO. 19 December 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 December 2021. Retrieved 22 December 2021.
  75. ↑ "Congo declares end to latest Ebola outbreak in the east". ABC News. Archived from the original on 25 December 2021. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
  76. ↑ Jagadesh S, Sevalie S, Fatoma R, Sesay F, Sahr F, Faragher B, et al. (January 2018). "Disability Among Ebola Survivors and Their Close Contacts in Sierra Leone: A Retrospective Case-Controlled Cohort Study". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 66 (1): 131–133. doi:10.1093/cid/cix705. PMC 5833946. PMID 29020205.
  77. ↑ Massaquoi MB, Kennedy SB, Tegli JK, Bolay FK, Kateh FN (April 2016). "Fostering collaboration on post-Ebola clinical research in Liberia". The Lancet. Global Health. 4 (4): e239. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(15)00323-X. PMID 27013310. Archived from the original on 2021-08-28. Retrieved 2021-05-09.
  78. ↑ Eghrari AO, Bishop RJ, Ross RD, Davis B, Larbelee J, Amegashie F, et al. (January 2021). "Characterization of Ebola Virus-Associated Eye Disease". JAMA Network Open. 4 (1): e2032216. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.32216. PMC 7786253. PMID 33399856.
  79. ↑ "PREVAIL treatment trial for men with persistent Ebola viral RNA in semen opens in Liberia". National Institutes of Health (NIH). 2016-07-05. Archived from the original on 2021-01-10. Retrieved 2021-01-27.
  80. ↑ Eghrari, Allen O.; Shantha, Jessica G.; Ross, Robin D.; Ryn, Collin Van; Crozier, Ian; Hayek, Brent; Gradin, Dan; Roberts, Ben; Prakalapakorn, S. Grace; Amegashie, Fred; Nishant, Kumar (2021-01-04). "Efficacy and Safety Outcomes of Cataract Surgery in Survivors of Ebola Virus Disease: 12-Month Results From the PREVAIL VII Study". Translational Vision Science & Technology. 10 (1): 32. doi:10.1167/tvst.10.1.32. ISSN 2164-2591. PMC 7838547. PMID 33520427.

Further reading

Classification
This article is issued from Offline. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.