Deliriant

Attractive but highly toxic berry of Atropa belladonna

Deliriants are a class of hallucinogen. The term was coined in the early 1980s to distinguish these drugs from psychedelics and dissociatives such as LSD and ketamine, due to their primary effect of causing delirium, as opposed to the more lucid and less disturbed states produced by other types of hallucinogens.[1] The term generally refers to anticholinergic drugs, which are substances that inhibit the function of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Common examples of deliriants include plants of the genera Datura and Brugmansia (both containing scopolamine) as well as higher than recommended dosages of diphenhydramine (Benadryl).[2][3] A number of plant deliriants such as that of the Solanaceae family, particularly in the Americas have been used by some indigenous cultures to reach delirious and altered states for traditions or rituals, such as rites of passage, divination or communicating with the ancestors.[4] Despite their long history of use, deliriants are the least-studied class of hallucinogens in terms of their behavioral and neurological effects.[5]

Etymology

The term was introduced by David F. Duncan and Robert S. Gold due to a characteristic delirium-like effect which is known to manifest as a reoccurring symptom for anticholinergic hallucinogens.[6] The term deliriant originates from delirium (dēlīrĭum) which comes from the Latin verb delirare, which means ‘to go off the furrow’, ‘to derail’. liria (furrow) - The earth thrown up between two furrows, a ridge. ex, e - out of, from. delirio - frenzy, madness, deranged.[7] It is said to be a figurative reference to going off or out of the furrow when ploughing (agricultural).

Effects

The hallucinogenic experience and delirium produced, particularly by anticholinergics is characterized by stupor, agitation, confusion, confabulation, dysphoria, memory deficits, incoherency of thoughts, akathisia, realistic visual hallucinations or illusions (as opposed to the pseudohallucinations experienced on other classes of hallucinogens) and regression to "phantom" behaviors such as disrobing and plucking.[8] The effects of anticholinergic drugs have been likened to delirious fevers, sleepwalking, a fugue state or a psychotic episode in that the subject has minimal control over their actions and may have little or no recollection of the experience. This is a notable departure from the effects of serotonergic psychedelics.[3][9]

The plant-based alkaloids scopolamine and atropine are notorious for their characteristic hyperactive effects and ability to cause stark and dream-like hallucinations.[10][3] The hallucinations themselves are often described by users as disturbing, unpleasant or dark in nature.[11][12][13] Other commonly reported behaviors and experiences include holding conversations with imagined persons or entities, smoking nonexistent cigarettes (even with nonsmokers), visual hallucinations of spiders or shadow figures or being unable to recognize one's own reflection in a mirror.[14] Deliriants in particular appear to be noted for their powerful effects on users’ behavior.[15] Anthropological assessment of the sacred Chumash Datura cult in Southern California ascertained that within the tribe; frequent or repeat users of datura tended to gradually become more and more antisocial, often adopting behavior patterns that the rest of the tribe viewed as "capricious malevolence".[16] Scopolamine has also been shown to exert a greater impairment on episodic memory, event-related potentials, memory retention and free recall compared to DPH (an anticholinergic and antihistamine).[17] Some antihistamines may also act as deliriants in high doses.

Deliriant substances

Datura stramonium (jimsonweed) seed pod

Naturally-occurring anticholinergic deliriants are found in the plant species Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade), various Brugmansia species (Angel's Trumpets), Datura stramonium (Jimson weed), Hyoscyamus niger (henbane), and Mandragora officinarum (mandrake) in the form of the tropane alkaloids scopolamine, atropine, and hyoscyamine. Other, lesser known plant sources of scopolamine and related tropanes include Scopolia carniolica endemic to Europe, Latua endemic to southern Chile, Solandra endemic to Mexico and Duboisia myoporoides, which is endemic to Australia and contains both scopolamine and nicotine.[18][19][20]

Synthetic compounds such as diphenhydramine (Benadryl) and dimenhydrinate (Dramamine) are also deliriants. Nutmeg (although purportedly not as strong or as unpleasant as diphenhydramine or scopolamine) is also considered a deliriant due to its propensity to cause anticholinergic-like symptoms when taken in large doses.[21] The effects caused by myristicin and elemicin found in nutmeg's essential oil can last up to several days, similarly to the tropane alkaloids found in datura.[22][23] The mushroom referred to as fly agaric with its active agents ibotenic acid and muscimol may also be considered a deliriant, although fly agaric is probably more accurately described as a hypnotic.[24][25] In rare cases, highly toxic plants from the Aconitum (wolfsbane) genus have been used as "deliriants" by certain groups practicing European witchcraft, the left-hand path or asceticism due to the unpleasant but supposed altered state of consciousness which can be a side effect of wolfsbane poisoning. Plants of the aconitum genus contain the neurotoxin aconitine and in the case of Aconitum ferox, an extremely toxic alkaloid called pseudaconitine, which is in rare cases, taken as an ordeal poison and entheogen on the Indian subcontinent by ascetic groups such as the Aghori where it may be mixed with other psychoactive plants or poisons such as datura and cannabis. Risk of death is considered very high when taking A. ferox and its use is restricted to only the most experienced adepts of their particular school of Shivaism.[26][27][28]

Recreational use

A woman diagnosed with chronic dementia (1896)

Despite the fully legal status of several common deliriant plants and OTC medicines, deliriants are largely unpopular as recreational drugs due to the severe dysphoria, uncomfortable and generally damaging cognitive and physical effects, as well as the unpleasant nature of the hallucinations.[29][11]

User reports of recreational deliriant usage on the drug resource website Erowid generally indicate a firm unwillingness to repeat the experience.[30] In addition to potentially dangerous mental effects (accidents during deliriant experiences are common)[31] some tropane alkaloids, such as those found in plants of the Datura genus, are poisonous and can cause death due to tachycardia-induced heart failure, hypoventilation and hyperthermia even in small doses.[32] Anticholinergics have been shown to increase the risk of developing dementia with long-term use even at therapeutic doses, therefore they are presumed to carry an even greater risk when used at hallucinogenic dosages.[33][34] Scopolamine in particular has been implemented in scientific models used to study the cholinergic hypothesis for Alzheimer's disease and other related dementias.[35]

Despite these overtly negative effects both on the physical and mental health of the user, usage of deliriants for recreational purposes has still gone on for centuries and was said to be introduced in Europe and surrounding areas by the Romani people who would smoke or ingest plants such as datura to experience hallucinations.[36] It's also been said that certain groups who used deliriant plants, especially in hedgewitchery (wortcunning) practices, would traditionally also mix in medicinal or neuroprotective plants either directly during the intoxications or later on to counter negative health consequences or symptoms such as dysphoria or senility.[37][38][39]

Occultism and folklore

Preparation for the Witches' Sabbath by David Teniers the Younger. Note on the left an older witch reading from a grimoire while anointing the buttocks of a young witch about to fly to the sabbath upon an inverted besom with a candle upon its twigs

Deliriants such as henbane, belladonna, mandrake, jimsonweed and fly agaric are associated with and featured in many stories and beliefs within European mythology.[40][41][42][39] In ancient Greek myth, wreaths of henbane leaves were used to crown the newly deceased to make them forget their former lives as they crossed or wandered near the River Styx in the underworld.[43] The belladonna plant genus, Atropa is named after the Greek Fate, Atropos, who cut the thread of life.[44] In early medieval times, Mandrake was believed to have commonly grown under gallows where bodily fluids dripped from the bodies of deceased murderers, with some sources stating blood and others claiming semen or urine.[45][46][47]

Tropane-containing nightshades have played an integral role in Old World folklore and European witchcraft.[48][49][50] Henbane is reputed for having been used in Greco-Roman magic during ancient times as well as being associated with black magic and maleficium during the Late Middle Ages.[51] During this period in medieval Europe, the Central European species Scopolia carniolica was also used as an admixture in love potions.[52] Belladonna was purported to aid in the “flight of witches” where they reportedly would experience "bacchanalian carousal" or hallucinatory dreaming.[53][54] Mandrake (the root of Mandragora officinarum) is mentioned twice in the Bible,[55][56] and was also frequently mentioned as a typical ingredient in flying ointment recipes since at least as far back as the Early Modern Period.[57] During this time period, the New World plant datura stramonium (jimsonweed) was discovered in North America by colonialists and eventually lumped in with the other classic ‘witches weeds’ of the nightshade family that were endemic to Europe.[58][59] Datura has a long history of usage both in Mexico and the Southwestern United States by indigenous cultures using it for ritualistic, sacred and magical purposes.[60][61][4] In modern times, both Datura and Brugmansia are still used for sorcery, black magic, and shamanism in Latin America.[62][63] In certain South American countries, members of the Brugmansia genus have been known to be occasionally added to ayahuasca brews by malevolent sorcerers (brujos) or bad shamans who wish to take advantage of unsuspecting tourists. Genuine shamans (curanderos) believe one of the purposes for this is to "steal one's energy and/or power", of which they believe every person has a limited amount.[64]

Since medieval times, extremely noxious plants of the Aconitum (wolfsbane) genus were also associated with folklore and magic and were used for similar purposes as the tropane-containing nightshades.[65] Despite being a highly poisonous and often deadly plant to work with, it was still often included in recipes for flying ointments and magical salves; likely as a way to help counteract both the cardiac and hyperthermic side effects of the scopolamine.[66][67] The aconitum genus (specifically aconitum napellus) was firmly associated with superstition and witchcraft in Europe, particularly when it came to mythos surrounding werewolves and lycanthropy.[68][69] This is believed to have originated at least partially from wolfsbane's alleged tendency to cause paresthesia which supposedly can be reported to feel like one's body is covered in fur.[70] In Greek mythology, the goddess Hecate is said to have invented aconitum which Athena used to transform Arachne into a spider.[71][72]

Classes of deliriants

See also

References

  1. ↑ Duncan, D. F., and Gold, R. S. (1982). Drugs and the Whole Person. New York: John Wiley & Sons
  2. ↑ "Datura reports on Erowid". Retrieved 2013-05-07.
  3. 1 2 3 Forest E (27 July 2008). "Atypical Drugs of Abuse". Articles & Interviews. Student Doctor Network. Archived from the original on 27 May 2013.
  4. 1 2 Kennedy, David O. (2014). "The Deliriants - The Nightshade (Solanaceae) Family". Plants and the Human Brain. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 131–137. ISBN 9780199914012. LCCN 2013031617. Archived from the original on 2021-09-17. Retrieved 2021-09-17.
  5. ↑ Volgin, A. D.; Yakovlev, O. A.; Demin, K. A.; Alekseeva, P. A.; Kyzar, E. J.; Collins, C.; Nichols, D. E.; Kalueff, A. V. (16 October 2018). "Understanding Central Nervous System Effects of Deliriant Hallucinogenic Drugs through Experimental Animal Models". ACS Chemical Neuroscience. 10 (1): 143–154. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00433. PMID 30252437. Retrieved 18 May 2021.
  6. ↑ Duncan, D. F., and Gold, R. S. (1982). Drugs and the Whole Person. New York: John Wiley & Sons
  7. ↑ Volgin, A. D.; Yakovlev, O. A.; Demin, K. A.; Alekseeva, P. A.; Kyzar, E. J.; Collins, C.; Nichols, D. E.; Kalueff, A. V. (16 October 2018). "Understanding Central Nervous System Effects of Deliriant Hallucinogenic Drugs through Experimental Animal Models". ACS Chemical Neuroscience. 10 (1): 143–154. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00433. PMID 30252437. Retrieved 18 May 2021.
  8. ↑ Bersani, F. S.; Corazza, O.; Simonato, P.; Mylokosta, A.; Levari, E.; Lovaste, R.; Schifano, F. (2013). "Drops of madness? Recreational misuse of tropicamide collyrium; early warning alerts from Russia and Italy". General Hospital Psychiatry. 35 (5): 571–3. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2013.04.013. PMID 23706777.
  9. ↑ Sinclair, Raisa (2019). A Field Guide To Deliriants
  10. ↑ Volgin, A. D.; Yakovlev, O. A.; Demin, K. A.; Alekseeva, P. A.; Kyzar, E. J.; Collins, C.; Nichols, D. E.; Kalueff, A. V. (16 October 2018). "Understanding Central Nervous System Effects of Deliriant Hallucinogenic Drugs through Experimental Animal Models". ACS Chemical Neuroscience. 10 (1): 143–154. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00433. PMID 30252437. Retrieved 18 May 2021.
  11. 1 2 Safford, William (1916). Narcotic Plants and Stimulants of the Ancient Americans. United States: Economic Botanist. pp. 405–406.
  12. ↑ "Datura reports on Erowid". Retrieved 2013-05-07.
  13. ↑ Grinspoon, Lester and Bakalar, James B. (1997). Psychedelic Drugs Reconsidered. The Lindesmith Center
  14. ↑ "Datura reports on Erowid". Retrieved 2013-05-07.
  15. ↑ Volgin, A. D.; Yakovlev, O. A.; Demin, K. A.; Alekseeva, P. A.; Kyzar, E. J.; Collins, C.; Nichols, D. E.; Kalueff, A. V. (16 October 2018). "Understanding Central Nervous System Effects of Deliriant Hallucinogenic Drugs through Experimental Animal Models". ACS Chemical Neuroscience. 10 (1): 143–154. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00433. PMID 30252437. Retrieved 18 May 2021.
  16. ↑ "The Datura Cult Among the Chumash; The Journal of California Anthropology" (PDF).
  17. ↑ Curran, H. V.; Pooviboonsuk, P.; Dalton, J. A.; Lader, M. H. (January 1998). "Differentiating the effects of centrally acting drugs on arousal and memory: an event-related potential study of scopolamine, lorazepam and diphenhydramine". Psychopharmacology. 135 (1): 27–36. doi:10.1007/s002130050482. PMID 9489931. S2CID 9872819. Retrieved 16 July 2021.
  18. ↑ Armando T. Hunziker: The Genera of Solanaceae. A.R.G. Gantner Verlag K.G., Ruggell, Liechtenstein 2001. ISBN 3-904144-77-4
  19. ↑ Rätsch, Christian, The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications pub. Park Street Press 2005
  20. ↑ "Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry : Drugs Containing Alkaloids".
  21. ↑ Demetriades, A. K.; Wallman, P. D.; McGuiness, A.; Gavalas, M. C. (2005). "Low Cost, High Risk: Accidental Nutmeg Intoxication". Emergency Medicine Journal. 22 (3): 223–225. doi:10.1136/emj.2002.004168. PMC 1726685. PMID 15735280
  22. ↑ Ehrenpreis, J. E.; Deslauriers, C; Lank, P; Armstrong, P. K.; Leikin, J. B. (2014). "Nutmeg Poisonings: A Retrospective Review of 10 Years Experience from the Illinois Poison Center, 2001–2011". Journal of Medical Toxicology. 10 (2): 148–151. doi:10.1007/s13181-013-0379-7. PMC 4057546. PMID 24452991
  23. ↑ Bliss, M. (2001). "Datura Plant Poisoning" (PDF). Clinical Toxicology Review. 23 (6).
  24. ↑ Hallucinogenic mushrooms an emerging trend case study (PDF). Lisbon: European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. 2006. ISBN 978-92-9168-249-2.
  25. ↑ Satora, L.; Pach, D.; Butryn, B.; Hydzik, P.; Balicka-Slusarczyk, B. (June 2005). "Fly agaric (Amanita muscaria) poisoning, case report and review". Toxicon. 45 (7): 941–3. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.01.005. PMID 15904689
  26. ↑ Lewis Spence (1970). The Encyclopedia of the Occult. Bracken Books. p. 306 – via Internet Archive.
  27. ↑ Barrett, Ron (2008). Aghor medicine: pollution, death, and healing in northern India. Edition: illustrated. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-25218-7, ISBN 978-0-520-25218-9.
  28. ↑ Svoboda, Robert (1986). Aghora: At the Left Hand of God. Brotherhood of Life. ISBN 0-914732-21-8.
  29. ↑ Grinspoon, Lester and Bakalar, James B. (1997). Psychedelic Drugs Reconsidered. The Lindesmith Center
  30. ↑ "Datura reports". Erowid.org. Retrieved 2013-05-07.
  31. ↑ "Datura Items". Lycaeum.org. Retrieved 2011-01-04.
  32. ↑ Beaver, Kathleen M; Gavin, Thomas J (1998). "Treatment of acute anticholinergic poisoning with physostigmine". The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 16 (5): 505–507. doi:10.1016/S0735-6757(98)90003-1. PMID 9725967.
  33. ↑ "Study suggests link between long-term use of anticholinergics and dementia risk". Alzheimer's Society. 2015-01-26. Archived from the original on 2015-11-12. Retrieved 2015-02-17.
  34. ↑ Flicker C, Ferris SH, Serby M (1992). "Hypersensitivity to scopolamine in the elderly". Psychopharmacology. 107 (2–3): 437–41. doi:10.1007/bf02245172. PMID 1615141. S2CID 29065240.
  35. ↑ More SV, Kumar H, Cho DY, Yun YS, Choi DK (September 2016). "Toxin-Induced Experimental Models of Learning and Memory Impairment". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 17 (9): 1447. doi:10.3390/ijms17091447. PMC 5037726. PMID 27598124
  36. ↑ Pennachio, Marcello et al. (2010). Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke: Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine. Oxford University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-19-537001-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  37. ↑ Hansen, Harold A. The Witch's Garden pub. Unity Press 1978 ISBN 978-0913300473
  38. ↑ Block W. "Galantamine, the Odyssey's Nootropic Phytonutrient, Revives Memory and Helps Fight Alzheimer's Disease". Life enhancement. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
  39. 1 2 Fatur, Karsten (June 2020). ""Hexing Herbs" in Ethnobotanical Perspective: A Historical Review of the Uses of Anticholinergic Solanaceae Plants in Europe". Economic Botany. 74 (2): 140–158. doi:10.1007/s12231-020-09498-w. ISSN 0013-0001. S2CID 220844064.
  40. ↑ Schultes, Richard Evans; Hofmann, Albert (1979). The Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens (2nd ed.). Springfield Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. pps. 261-4.
  41. ↑ Arora, D. (1986). Mushrooms demystified: a comprehensive guide to the fleshy fungi (2nd ed.). Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. pp. 282–83. ISBN 978-0-89815-169-5.
  42. ↑ Griffin WJ, Lin GD (March 2000). "Chemotaxonomy and geographical distribution of tropane alkaloids". Phytochemistry. 53 (6): 623–37. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(99)00475-6. PMID 10746874.
  43. ↑ Sinclair, Raisa (2019). A Field Guide To Deliriants
  44. ↑ Griffin WJ, Lin GD (March 2000). "Chemotaxonomy and geographical distribution of tropane alkaloids". Phytochemistry. 53 (6): 623–37. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(99)00475-6. PMID 10746874.
  45. ↑ Sinclair, Raisa (2019). A Field Guide To Deliriants
  46. ↑ Peters, Edward (2001). "Sorcerer and Witch". In Jolly, Karen Louise; Raudvere, Catharina; et al. (eds.). Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: The Middle Ages. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 233–37. ISBN 978-0-485-89003-7.
  47. ↑ "The plant that can kill and cure". BBC. Retrieved 2021-10-30.
  48. ↑ Rätsch, Christian, The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications pub. Park Street Press 2005
  49. ↑ Peters, Edward (2001). "Sorcerer and Witch". In Jolly, Karen Louise; Raudvere, Catharina; et al. (eds.). Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: The Middle Ages. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 233–37. ISBN 978-0-485-89003-7.
  50. ↑ Hansen, Harold A. The Witch's Garden pub. Unity Press 1978 ISBN 978-0913300473
  51. ↑ Rätsch, Christian, The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications pub. Park Street Press 2005
  52. ↑ Starý, František, Poisonous Plants (Hamlyn colour guides) – pub. Paul Hamlyn April, 1984, translated from the Czech by Olga Kuthanová.
  53. ↑ Hansen, Harold A. The Witch's Garden pub. Unity Press 1978 ISBN 978-0913300473
  54. ↑ Kowalchik, Claire; Carr A Hylton W (1987). Herb gardening. Rodale. pp. 1 and 158. ISBN 0-87596-964-X.
  55. ↑ "Genesis 30:14–16 (King James Version)". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 6 January 2014.
  56. ↑ "Song of Songs 7:12–13 (King James Version)". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 6 January 2014.
  57. ↑ Schultes, Richard Evans; Hofmann, Albert (1979). The Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens (2nd ed.). Springfield Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. pps. 261-4.
  58. ↑ Schultes, Richard Evans; Hofmann, Albert (1979). The Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens (2nd ed.). Springfield Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. pps. 261-4.
  59. ↑ Rätsch, Christian, The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications pub. Park Street Press 2005
  60. ↑ Fuller, Robert C (2000). Stairways to Heaven: Drugs in American Religious History. Basic Books. p. 32. ISBN 0813366127.
  61. ↑ Cecilia Garcia; James D. Adams (2005). Healing with medicinal plants of the west - cultural and scientific basis for their use. Abedus Press. ISBN 0-9763091-0-6.
  62. ↑ Endredy, James (2011). The Flying Witches of Veracruz: A Shaman's True Story of Indigenous Witchcraft, Devil's Weed, and Trance Healing in Aztec Brujeria
  63. ↑ Campos, Don Jose (2011). The Shaman & Ayahuasca: Journeys to Sacred Realms.
  64. ↑ Campos, Don Jose (2011). The Shaman & Ayahuasca: Journeys to Sacred Realms.
  65. ↑ Rätsch, Christian, The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications pub. Park Street Press 2005
  66. ↑ Lewis Spence (1970). The Encyclopedia of the Occult. Bracken Books. p. 306 – via Internet Archive.
  67. ↑ Hansen, Harold A. The Witch's Garden pub. Unity Press 1978 ISBN 978-0913300473
  68. ↑ Schultes, Richard Evans; Albert Hofmann (1979). Plants of the Gods: Origins of Hallucinogenic Use New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-056089-7.
  69. ↑ Hansen, Harold A. The Witch's Garden pub. Unity Press 1978 ISBN 978-0913300473
  70. ↑ Lewis Spence (1970). The Encyclopedia of the Occult. Bracken Books. p. 306 – via Internet Archive.
  71. ↑ Grieve, Mrs. Maud (1982) [1931]. Leyel, Mrs. C.F. (ed.). Aconite, in: A Modern Herbal (Botanical.com; online ed.). New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0486227987.
  72. ↑ More, Brookes (1922). "P. Ovidius Naso : Metamorphoses; Book 6, lines 87–145". Perseus Digital Library Project. Boston: Cornhill Publishing Co.
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