Karu language

Baniwa has active–stative alignment.[8] This means that the subject of an intransitive clause is sometimes marked in the same way as the agent of a transitive clause, and sometimes marked in the same way as the patient of a transitive clause. In Baniwa alignment is realized through verbal agreement, namely prefixes and enclitics.

Prefixes are used to mark:

• Active intransitive subjects (S_a)
• Agents of transitive clauses (A)
• Possessors
• Arguments of adpositions

Enclitics are used to mark:

• Stative intransitive subjects (S_o)
• Patients of transitive clauses (O)

The differences between active and stative intransitive clauses can be illustrated below:

• Transitive: ri-kapa-ni 'He sees him/it'
• Active Intransitive: ri-emhani 'He walks'
• Stative Intransitive: hape-ka-ni 'He is cold'

Baniwa has an interesting system of noun classification that combines a gender system with a noun classifier system.[9] Baniwa has two genders: feminine and nonfeminine. Feminine gender agreement is used to refer to female referents, whilst nonfeminine gender agreement is used for all other referents. The two genders are only distinguished in third person singular. Aihkenvald (2007) considers the bipartite gender system to be inherited from Proto-Arawak.[9]

In addition to gender, Baniwa also has 46 classifiers. Classifiers are used in three main contexts:[9]

• As a derivational suffix on nouns, e.g.

• With numerals, e.g.

• With adjectives, e.g.

Aihkenvald (2007) divides Baniwa classifiers into four different classes. One set of classifiers is used for humans, animate beings and body parts. Another set of classifiers specify the shape, consistency, quantification or specificity of the noun. Two more classes can be distinguished. One is only used with numerals and the other is only used with adjectives.[9]

Classifiers for Humans and animate beings:[9]

Classifiers according to shape, consistency, quantification and specificity:[9]

There are two main strategies for negation in the Kurripako-Baniwa varieties:[3]

• Independent negative markers
• The privative derivational prefix ma-

Different varieties have different negative markers. This is so prominent that speakers identify Kurripako dialects according to the words for 'yes' and 'no'.[3]

The independent negative markers come before the verb. They are used as clausal negators in declarative and interrogative sentences. They are also used to link clauses.[3]

The privative suffix is attached to nouns to derive a verb which means 'lacking' the noun from which it was derived. The opposite of the privative prefix is the attributive prefix ka-. This derives a verb which means 'having' the noun from which it was derived.[3] The difference can be illustrated below:

• Noun: iipe 'meat'
• Privative: ma-iipe > meepe 'be thin' (lit. lack meat)
• Attributive: ka-iipe > keepe 'be fat' (lit. have meat)

The prefix is used in combination with the restrictive suffix -tsa to form negative imperatives, e.g. ma-ihnia-tsa 'don't eat!'. A privative prefix is also reconstructed in Proto-Arawak privative as *ma-.[10]

Granadillo (2014) considers Kurripako a VOS language.[3]