Mumbai

A resident of Mumbai is called Mumbaikar (pronounced [mumbəikəɾ]) in Marathi, in which the suffix -kar means a resident of. The term had been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai.[60] Older terms such as Bombayite are also used.[61][62]

Kanheri Caves contain Buddhist sculptures and paintings dating from the 1st century CE to the 10th century CE.

Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands: Isle of Bombay, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli, and Old Woman's Island (also known as Little Colaba).[63] It is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited. Pleistocene sediments found along the coastal areas around Kandivali in northern Mumbai suggest that the islands were inhabited since the South Asian Stone Age.[64] Perhaps at the beginning of the Common Era, or possibly earlier, they came to be occupied by the Koli fishing community.[65][66]

In the 3rd century BCE, the islands formed part of the Maurya Empire, during its expansion in the south, ruled by the Buddhist emperor Ashoka of Magadha.[67] The Kanheri Caves in Borivali were excavated from basalt rock in the first century CE,[68] and served as an important centre of Buddhism in Western India during ancient Times.[69] The city then was known as Heptanesia (Ancient Greek: A Cluster of Seven Islands) to the Greek geographer Ptolemy in 150 CE.[70] The Mahakali Caves in Andheri were cut out between the 1st century BCE and the 6th century CE.[71][72]

Between the 2nd century BCE and 9th century CE, the islands came under the control of successive indigenous dynasties: Satavahanas, Western Satraps, Abhira, Vakataka, Kalachuris, Konkan Mauryas, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas,[73] before being ruled by the Shilaharas from 810 to 1260.[74] Some of the oldest edifices in the city built during this period are the Jogeshwari Caves (between 520 and 525),[75] Elephanta Caves (between the sixth to seventh century),[76] Walkeshwar Temple (10th century),[77][78] and Banganga Tank (12th century).[79][80]

The Haji Ali Dargah was built in 1431, when Mumbai was under the rule of the Gujarat Sultanate.

King Bhimdev founded his kingdom in the region in the late 13th century and established his capital in Mahikawati (present day Mahim).[81] The Pathare Prabhus, among the earliest known settlers of the city, were brought to Mahikawati from Saurashtra in Gujarat around 1298 by Bhimdev.[82] The Delhi Sultanate annexed the islands in 1347–48 and controlled it until 1407. During this time, the islands were administered by the Muslim Governors of Gujarat, who were appointed by the Delhi Sultanate.[83][84]

The islands were later governed by the independent Gujarat Sultanate, which was established in 1407. As a result of the Sultanate's support, numerous mosques were built, with one notable example being the Haji Ali Dargah in Worli. Erected in 1431, this magnificent structure pays homage to the revered Muslim saint, Haji Ali.[85] From 1429 to 1431, the islands were a source of contention between the Gujarat Sultanate and the Bahmani Sultanate of Deccan.[86][87] In 1493, Bahadur Khan Gilani of the Bahmani Sultanate attempted to conquer the islands but was defeated.[88]

The Madh Fort, built by the Portuguese, was one of the most important forts in Salsette.

The Mughal Empire, founded in 1526, was the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent during the mid-16th century.[89] Growing apprehensive of the power of the Mughal emperor Humayun, Sultan Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was obliged to sign the Treaty of Bassein with the Portuguese Empire on 23 December 1534. According to the treaty, the Seven Islands of Bombay, the nearby strategic town of Bassein and its dependencies were offered to the Portuguese. The territories were later surrendered on 25 October 1535.[90]

Flora Fountain, built in Neo Classical and Gothic Revival style in 1864, depicts the Roman goddess Flora.

The Portuguese were actively involved in the foundation and growth of their Roman Catholic religious orders in Bombay.[91] They called the islands by various names, which finally took the written form Bombaim. The islands were leased to several Portuguese officers during their regime. The Portuguese Franciscans and Jesuits built several churches in the city, prominent being the St. Michael's Church at Mahim (1534),[92] St. John the Baptist Church at Andheri (1579),[93] St. Andrew's Church at Bandra (1580),[94] and Gloria Church at Byculla (1632).[95] The Portuguese also built several fortifications around the city like the Bombay Castle, Castella de Aguada (Castelo da Aguada or Bandra Fort), and Madh Fort. The English were in constant struggle with the Portuguese vying for hegemony over Mumbai, as they recognised its strategic natural harbour and its natural isolation from land attacks. By the middle of the 17th century the growing power of the Dutch Empire forced the English to acquire a station in western India. On 11 May 1661, the marriage treaty of Charles II of England and Catherine of Braganza, daughter of King John IV of Portugal, placed the islands in possession of the English Empire, as part of Catherine's dowry to Charles.[96] However, Salsette, Bassein, Mazagaon, Parel, Worli, Sion, Dharavi, and Wadala still remained under Portuguese possession. From 1665 to 1666, the English managed to acquire Mahim, Sion, Dharavi, and Wadala.[97]

Two views of the English fort in Bombay, c. 1665

In accordance with the Royal Charter of 27 March 1668, England leased these islands to the English East India Company in 1668 for a sum of £10 per annum.[98] The population quickly rose from 10,000 in 1661, to 60,000 in 1675.[99] The islands were subsequently attacked by Yakut Khan, the Muslim Koli[100][101][102][103] admiral of the Mughal Empire, in October 1672,[104] Rickloffe van Goen, the Governor-General of Dutch India on 20 February 1673,[105] and Siddi admiral Sambal on 10 October 1673.[104]

In 1687, the English East India Company transferred its headquarters from Surat to Mumbai. The city eventually became the headquarters of the Bombay Presidency.[106] Following the transfer, Mumbai was placed at the head of all the company's establishments in India.[107] Towards the end of the 17th century, the islands again suffered incursions from Yakut Khan in 1689–90.[108] The Portuguese presence ended in Mumbai when the Marathas under Peshwa Baji Rao I captured Salsette in 1737, and Bassein in 1739.[109] By the middle of the 18th century, Mumbai began to grow into a major trading town, and received a huge influx of migrants from across India.[110] Later, the British occupied Salsette on 28 December 1774. With the Treaty of Surat (1775), the British formally gained control of Salsette and Bassein, resulting in the First Anglo-Maratha War.[111] The British were able to secure Salsette from the Marathas without violence through the Treaty of Purandar (1776),[112] and later through the Treaty of Salbai (1782), signed to settle the outcome of the First Anglo-Maratha War.[113]

Ships in Mumbai Harbour (c. 1731). Mumbai emerged as a significant trading town during the mid-18th century.

From 1782 onwards, the city was reshaped with large-scale civil engineering projects aimed at merging all the seven islands of Bombay into a single amalgamated mass by way of a causeway called the Hornby Vellard, which was completed by 1784.[27][114] In 1817, the British East India Company under Mountstuart Elphinstone defeated Baji Rao II, the last of the Maratha Peshwa in the Battle of Khadki.[115] Following his defeat, almost the whole of the Deccan Plateau came under British suzerainty, and was incorporated into the Bombay Presidency. The success of the British campaign in the Deccan marked the end of all attacks by native powers.[116]

By 1845, the seven islands coalesced into a single landmass by the Hornby Vellard project via large scale land reclamation.[28][117] On 16 April 1853, India's first passenger railway line was established, connecting Mumbai to the neighbouring town of Thana (now Thane).[118] During the American Civil War (1861–1865), the city became the world's chief cotton-trading market, resulting in a boom in the economy that subsequently enhanced the city's stature.[119]

The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 transformed Mumbai into one of the largest seaports on the Arabian Sea.[120] In September 1896, Mumbai was hit by a bubonic plague epidemic where the death toll was estimated at 1,900 people per week.[121] About 850,000 people fled Mumbai and the textile industry was adversely affected.[122] While the city was the capital of the Bombay Presidency, the Indian independence movement fostered the Quit India Movement in 1942 and the Royal Indian Navy mutiny in 1946.[123][124]

Municipal Corporation Building, Mumbai in 1950 (Victoria Terminus partly visible on far right)

After India's independence in 1947, the territory of the Bombay Presidency retained by India was restructured into Bombay State. The area of Bombay State increased, after several erstwhile princely states that joined the Indian union were integrated into the state. Subsequently, the city became the capital of Bombay State.[125] In April 1950, Municipal limits of Mumbai were expanded by merging the Mumbai Suburban District and Mumbai City to form the Greater Mumbai Municipal Corporation.[126]

The Samyukta Maharashtra movement to create a separate Maharashtra state including Mumbai was at its height in the 1950s. In the Lok Sabha discussions in 1955, the Congress party demanded that the city be constituted as an autonomous city-state.[127] The States Reorganisation Committee recommended a bilingual state for Maharashtra–Gujarat with Mumbai as its capital in its 1955 report. Bombay Citizens' Committee, an advocacy group of leading Gujarati industrialists lobbied for Mumbai's independent status.[128]

Following protests during the movement in which 105 people died in clashes with the police, Bombay State was reorganised on linguistic lines on 1 May 1960.[129] Gujarati-speaking areas of Bombay State were partitioned into the state of Gujarat.[130] Maharashtra State with Mumbai as its capital was formed with the merger of Marathi-speaking areas of Bombay State, eight districts from Central Provinces and Berar, five districts from Hyderabad State, and numerous princely states enclosed between them.[131] As a memorial to the martyrs of the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, Flora Fountain was renamed as Hutatma Chowk (Martyr's Square) and a memorial was erected.[132]

The Hutatma Chowk memorial, built to honour the martyrs of the Samyukta Maharashtra movement (Flora Fountain on its left in the background)

The following decades saw massive expansion of the city and its suburbs. In the late 1960s, Nariman Point and Cuffe Parade were reclaimed and developed.[133] The Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (BMRDA) was established on 26 January 1975 by the Government of Maharashtra as an apex body for planning and co-ordination of development activities in the Mumbai metropolitan region.[134] In August 1979, a sister township of New Mumbai was founded by the City and Industrial Development Corporation (CIDCO) across the Thane and Raigad districts to help the dispersal and control of Mumbai's population. The textile industry in Mumbai largely disappeared after the widespread 1982 Great Bombay Textile Strike, in which nearly 250,000 workers in more than 50 textile mills went on strike.[135] Mumbai's defunct cotton mills have since become the focus of intense redevelopment.[136][137] Industrial development began in Mumbai when its economy started focusing on the petrochemical, electronic, and automotive sectors. In 1954 Hindustan Petroleum comissoned Mumbai Refinery at Trombay and BPCL Refinery.[138]

The Jawaharlal Nehru Port, which handles 55–60% of India's containerized cargo, was commissioned on 26 May 1989 across the creek at Nhava Sheva with a view to de-congest Mumbai Harbour and to serve as a hub port for the city.[139] The geographical limits of Greater Mumbai were coextensive with municipal limits of Greater Mumbai. On 1 October 1990, the Greater Mumbai district was bifurcated to form two revenue districts namely, Mumbai City and Mumbai Suburban, though they continued to be administered by same Municipal Administration.[140]

The years from 1990 to 2010 saw an increase in violence and terrorism activities. Following the demolition of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya, the city was rocked by the Hindu-Muslim riots of 1992–93 in which more than 1,000 people were killed. In March 1993, a series of 13 coordinated bombings at several city landmarks by Islamic extremists and the Mumbai underworld resulted in 257 deaths and over 700 injuries.[141] In 2006, 209 people were killed and over 700 injured when seven bombs exploded on the city's commuter trains.[142] In 2008, a series of ten coordinated attacks by armed terrorists for three days resulted in 173 deaths, 308 injuries, and severe damage to several heritage landmarks and prestigious hotels.[143] The three coordinated bomb explosions in July 2011 that occurred at the Opera house, Zaveri Bazaar and Dadar were the latest in the series of terrorist attacks in Mumbai which resulted in 26 deaths and 130 injuries.[144][145]

Mumbai is the commercial capital of India and has evolved into a global financial hub.[146] For several decades it has been the home of India's main financial services companies, and a focus for both infrastructure development and private investment.[147] From being an ancient fishing community and a colonial centre of trade, Mumbai has become South Asia's largest city and home of the world's most prolific film industry.[148]

Average temperature and precipitation in Mumbai

Skyline of Mumbai during a monsoon

Mumbai has an extreme tropical wet and dry climate (Aw) under the Köppen climate classification, although the central and northern suburbs have a tropical monsoon climate (Am) with even heavier wet season rainfall. Mumbai has a virtually rainless period extending from October to May and an extremely wet period peaking in July.[168] A cooler season from December to February is followed by a hotter season from March to May. The period from June to about the end of September constitutes the south west monsoon season, and October and November form the post-monsoon season.[169]

Between June and September, the South-west monsoon rains occur in Mumbai. Pre-monsoon showers are received in May. Occasionally, north-east monsoon showers occur in October and November. The maximum annual rainfall ever recorded was 3,452 mm (136 in) for 1954.[170] The highest rainfall recorded in a single day was 944 mm (37 in) on 26 July 2005.[171] The average total annual rainfall is 2,213.4 mm (87 in) for the Island City, and 2,502.3 mm (99 in) for the suburbs.[170]

The average annual temperature is 27 °C (81 °F), and the average annual precipitation is 2,213 mm (87 in).[172] In the Island City, the average maximum temperature is 31 °C (88 °F), while the average minimum temperature is 24 °C (75 °F). In the suburbs, the daily mean maximum temperature range from 29 °C (84 °F) to 33 °C (91 °F), while the daily mean minimum temperature ranges from 16 °C (61 °F) to 26 °C (79 °F).[170] The record high is 42.2 °C (108 °F) set on 14 April 1952,[173] and the record low is 7.4 °C (45 °F) set on 27 January 1962.[173][174]

Tropical cyclones are rare in the city. The worst cyclone to ever impact Mumbai was the one in 1948 where gusts reached 151 km/h (94 mph) in Juhu. The storm left 38 people dead and 47 missing. The storm reportedly impacted Mumbai for 20 hours and left the city devastated.[175][176][177]

Mumbai is prone to monsoon floods,[178][179] caused due to climate change that is affected by heavy rains and high tide in the sea, according to the World Bank, unplanned drainage system and informal settlement is a key factor of frequent floods in Mumbai.[180] Among other causes of flooding in Mumbai is its geographic location, Mumbai urban is peninsular in form, (a land-filled area that connects seven islands) a low laying area, compared to its suburbs that sit on an elevated location. Over the past few decades, new informal settlements were formed in the suburbs, causing a rapid increase in population, improper waste management, and drainage congestion. The rainwater from these areas heavily flows towards low-lying urban areas consisting of some slums and high-rise buildings. As a result, slums are either swamped, washed away, or collapse causing heavy casualties, and post-flood water logging lasts for a long time that causing blockage of railway lines-(most frequently used public transport in Mumbai), traffic snarl, inundated roads, and sub-merged bylanes. Over the past few decades, the frequency of floods in Mumbai is enormous, the 2005 Mumbai floods are characterized by 500-1000 deaths, household displacements, damaged infrastructure-(including heritage sites), and a financial loss of US$ 1.2 billion.[180][181] In the process of reducing floods in Mumbai, the Maharashtra government adopted a flood mitigation plan; according to which the drainage system will be restructured, restoration of Mithi River, and re-establishment of informal settlements. Local civic body Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) authorities are assigned to forecast and issue eviction notices while BMC along with NGO's prepare for the evacuation of the residents of those areas to temporary safe camps.[180][181][182]

Air pollution is a major issue in Mumbai.[191][192][193] According to the 2016 World Health Organization Global Urban Ambient Air Pollution Database,[194] the annual average PM2.5 concentration in 2013 was 63 μg/m³, which is 6.3 times higher than that recommended by the WHO Air Quality Guidelines[195] for the annual mean PM2.5. The Central Pollution Control Board for the Government of India and the Consulate General of the United States, Mumbai monitor and publicly share real-time air quality data.[196][197] In December 2019, IIT Bombay, in partnership with the McKelvey School of Engineering of Washington University in St. Louis launched the Aerosol and Air Quality Research Facility to study air pollution in Mumbai, among other Indian cities.[198]

Headquarters of the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC), the largest civic organisation in the country.

Greater Mumbai (or Brihanmumbai), an area of 603 km² (233 sq mi),[216] consisting of the Mumbai City and Mumbai Suburban districts, extends from Colaba in the south, to Mulund and Dahisar in the north, and Mankhurd in the east. Its population as per the 2011 census was 12,442,373.[217]

It is administered by the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) (sometimes referred to as the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai), formerly known as the Bombay Municipal Corporation (BMC).[153] The BMC is in charge of the civic and infrastructure needs of the metropolis.[218] The mayor, who serves for a term of two and a half years, is chosen through an indirect election by the councillors from among themselves.[219]

The municipal commissioner is the chief executive officer and head of the executive arm of the municipal corporation. All executive powers are vested in the municipal commissioner who is an Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer appointed by the state government. Although the municipal corporation is the legislative body that lays down policies for the governance of the city, it is the commissioner who is responsible for the execution of the policies. The commissioner is appointed for a fixed term as defined by state statute. The powers of the commissioner are those provided by statute and those delegated by the corporation or the standing committee.[220]

The Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation was ranked 9th out of 21 cities for best governance & administrative practices in India in 2014. It scored 3.5 on 10 compared to the national average of 3.3.[221]

The Bombay High Court exercises jurisdiction over Maharashtra, Goa, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.

The two revenue districts of Mumbai come under the jurisdiction of a District Collector. The collectors are in charge of property records and revenue collection for the central government, and oversee the national elections held in the city.

The Mumbai Police is headed by a police commissioner, who is an Indian Police Service (IPS) officer. The Mumbai Police is a division of the Maharashtra Police, under the state Home Ministry.[222] The city is divided into seven police zones and seventeen traffic police zones,[151] each headed by a deputy commissioner of police.[223] The Mumbai Traffic Police is a semi-autonomous body under the Mumbai Police. The Mumbai Fire Brigade, which is under the jurisdiction of the municipal corporation, is headed by the chief fire officer, who is assisted by four deputy chief fire officers and six divisional officers.[151] The Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA) is responsible for infrastructure development and planning of Mumbai Metropolitan Region.[224]

Mumbai is the seat of the Bombay High Court, which exercises jurisdiction over the states of Maharashtra and Goa, and the Union Territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.[225] Mumbai also has two lower courts, the Small Causes Court for civil matters, and the Sessions Court for criminal cases. Mumbai also has a special Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (TADA) court for people accused of conspiring and abetting acts of terrorism in the city.[226]

First session of the Indian National Congress in Mumbai (28–31 December 1885)

Mumbai had been a traditional stronghold and birthplace of the Indian National Congress, also known as the Congress Party.[227] The first session of the Indian National Congress was held in Mumbai from 28 to 31 December 1885.[228] The city played host to the Indian National Congress six times during its first 50 years, and became a strong base for the Indian independence movement during the 20th century.[229]

The 1960s saw the rise of regionalist politics in Mumbai, with the formation of the Shiv Sena on 19 June 1966, under the leadership of Balasaheb Thackeray out of a feeling of resentment about the relative marginalisation of the native Marathi people in Mumbai.[230] Shiv Sena switched from 'Marathi Cause' to larger 'Hindutva Cause' in 1985 and joined hands with Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP) in the same year.[231] The Congress had dominated the politics of Mumbai from independence until the early 1980s, when the Shiv Sena won the 1985 Mumbai Municipal Corporation elections.[232]

In 1989, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), a major national political party, forged an electoral alliance with the Shiv Sena to dislodge the Congress in the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly elections. In 1999, several members left the Congress to form the Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) but later allied with the Congress as part of an alliance known as the Democratic Front.[233] Other parties such as Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS), Samajwadi Party (SP), Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen (AIMIM) and several independent candidates also contest elections in the city.[234]

In the Indian national elections held every five years, Mumbai is represented by six parliamentary constituencies: North, North West, North East, North Central, South Central, and South.[235] A member of parliament (MP) to the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian Parliament, is elected from each of the parliamentary constituencies. In the 2019 national election, all six parliamentary constituencies were won by the BJP and Shiv Sena in alliance, with both parties winning three seats each.[236]

Maharashtra Legislative Assembly

In the Maharashtra state assembly elections held every five years, Mumbai is represented by 36 assembly constituencies.[237][238] A member of the legislative assembly (MLA) to the Maharashtra Vidhan Sabha (legislative assembly) is elected from each of the assembly constituencies. In the 2019 state assembly election, out of the 36 assembly constituencies, 16 were won by the BJP, 11 by the Shiv Sena, 6 by the Congress, 2 by the NCP and one by independent candidate.[239]

Elections are also held every five years to elect corporators to power in the MCGM.[240] The Corporation comprises 227 directly elected Councillors representing the 24 municipal wards, five nominated Councillors having special knowledge or experience in municipal administration, and a mayor whose role is mostly ceremonial.[241][242][243] In the 2012 municipal corporation elections, out of the 227 seats, the Shiv Sena-BJP alliance secured 107 seats, holding power with the support of independent candidates in the MCGM, while the Congress-NCP alliance bagged 64 seats.[244] The tenure of the mayor, deputy mayor, and municipal commissioner is two and a half years.[245]

Public transport systems in Mumbai include the Mumbai Suburban Railway, Monorail, Metro, Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport (BEST) buses, black-and-yellow meter taxis, auto rickshaws and ferries. Suburban railway and BEST bus services together accounted for about 88% of the passenger traffic in 2008.[246] Auto rickshaws are allowed to operate only in the suburban areas of Mumbai, while taxis are allowed to operate throughout Mumbai, but generally operate in South Mumbai.[247] Taxis and Auto rickshaws in Mumbai are required by law to run on compressed natural gas (CNG),[248] and are a convenient, economical, and easily available means of transport.[247]

The Mumbai Suburban Railway, popularly referred to as Locals forms the backbone of the city's transport system.[249] It is operated by the Central Railway and Western Railway zones of the Indian Railways.[250] Mumbai's suburban rail systems carried a total of 63 lakh (6.3 million) passengers every day in 2007.[251] Trains are overcrowded during peak hours, with nine-car trains of rated capacity 1,700 passengers, actually carrying around 4,500 passengers at peak hours.[252] The Mumbai rail network is spread at an expanse of 319 route kilometres. 191 rakes (train-sets) of 9 car and 12 car composition are utilised to run a total of 2,226 train services in the city.[253]

The Mumbai Monorail and Mumbai Metro have been built and are being extended in phases to relieve the overcrowding on the existing network. The Monorail opened in early February 2014.[254] The first line of the Mumbai Metro opened in early June 2014.[255]

Mumbai is the headquarters of two zones of the Indian Railways: the Central Railway (CR) headquartered at Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus), and the Western Railway (WR) headquartered at Churchgate.[256] Mumbai is also well connected to most parts of India by the Indian Railways. Long-distance trains originate from Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, Dadar, Lokmanya Tilak Terminus, Mumbai Central, Bandra Terminus, Andheri and Borivali.[257]

Mumbai's bus services carried over 55 lakh (5.5 million) passengers per day in 2008,[246] which dropped to 28 lakh (2.8 million) in 2015.[258] Public buses run by BEST cover almost all parts of the metropolis, as well as parts of Navi Mumbai, Mira-Bhayandar and Thane.[259] The BEST operates a total of 4,608 buses[260] with CCTV cameras installed, ferrying 45 lakh (4.5 million) passengers daily[246] over 390 routes. Its fleet consists of single-decker, double-decker, vestibule, low-floor, disabled-friendly, air-conditioned and Euro III compliant diesel and compressed natural gas powered buses.[261] BEST introduced air-conditioned buses in 1998.[262] BEST buses are red in colour, based originally on the Routemaster buses of London.[263] Maharashtra State Road Transport Corporation (MSRTC, also known as ST)[264] buses provide intercity transport connecting Mumbai with other towns and cities of Maharashtra and nearby states.[265][266] The Navi Mumbai Municipal Transport (NMMT) and Thane Municipal Transport (TMT) also operate their buses in Mumbai, connecting various nodes of Navi Mumbai and Thane to parts of Mumbai.[267][268]

Buses are generally favoured for commuting short to medium distances, while train fares are more economical for longer distance commutes.[269]

The Mumbai Darshan is a tourist bus service which explores numerous tourist attractions in Mumbai.[270] Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS) lanes have been planned throughout Mumbai.[271] Though 88% of the city's commuters travel by public transport, Mumbai still continues to struggle with traffic congestion.[272] Mumbai's transport system has been categorised as one of the most congested in the world.[273]

Water transport in Mumbai consists of ferries, hovercraft and catamarans. Services are provided by both government agencies as well as private partners.[274] Hovercraft services plied briefly in the late 1990s between the Gateway of India and CBD Belapur in Navi Mumbai. They were subsequently scrapped due to lack of adequate infrastructure.[275]

Mumbai is served by National Highway 48, National Highway 66, National Highway 160 and National Highway 61.[276] The Mumbai–Chennai and Mumbai–Delhi prongs of the Golden Quadrilateral system of National Highways start from the city. The Mumbai-Pune Expressway was the first expressway built in India.[277] The Eastern Freeway was opened in 2013. The Bandra-Worli Sea Link bridge, along with Mahim Causeway, links the island city to the western suburbs.[278] The three major road arteries of the city are the Eastern Express Highway from Sion to Thane, the Sion Panvel Expressway from Sion to Panvel and the Western Express Highway from Bandra to Bhayander.[279] The under-construction Mumbai Trans Harbour Link will connect Mumbai with Navi Mumbai and when completed, will be the longest sea bridge in India.[280] Mumbai has approximately 1,900 km (1,181 mi) of roads.[281] There are five tolled entry points to the city by road.[282]

Mumbai had about 721,000 private vehicles as of March 2014,[283] 56,459 black and yellow taxis as of 2005,[284] and 106,000 auto rickshaws, as of May 2013.[285]

Mumbai currently has one operational expressway–the Mumbai–Pune Expressway, which directly connects Mumbai with Pune. In the coming years, the great metropolis will be connected with more expressways. They are as follows:

• Delhi–Mumbai Expressway: Under construction since March 2019,[286] to be completed by December 2023.[287][288]
• Mumbai–Nagpur Expressway: Under construction since January 2019,[289] to be completed by December 2023.[290][291]
• Konkan Expressway: Proposed.[292]

The Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport (formerly Sahar International Airport) is the main aviation hub in the city and the second busiest airport in India in terms of passenger traffic.[293] It handled 36.6 million (3.66 crore) passengers and 694,300 tonnes of cargo during FY 2014–2015.[294] An upgrade plan was initiated in 2006, targeted at increasing the capacity of the airport to handle up to 40 million (4 crore) passengers annually[295] and the new terminal T2 was opened in February 2014.[296]

The proposed Navi Mumbai International airport to be built in the Kopra-Panvel area has been sanctioned by the Indian Government and will help relieve the increasing traffic burden on the existing airport.[297]

The Juhu Aerodrome was India's first airport, and now hosts the Bombay Flying Club and a heliport operated by state-owned Pawan Hans.[298]

Mumbai is served by two major ports, Mumbai Port Trust and Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust, which lies just across the creek in Navi Mumbai.[299] Mumbai Port has one of the best natural harbours in the world, and has extensive wet and dry dock accommodation facilities.[300] Jawaharlal Nehru Port, commissioned on 26 May 1989, is the busiest and most modern major port in India.[301] It handles 55–60% of the country's total containerised cargo.[302] Ferries from Ferry Wharf in Mazagaon allow access to islands near the city.[303]

The city is also the headquarters of the Western Naval Command, and also an important base for the Indian Navy.[153]

The religious groups represented in Greater Mumbai as of 2011 include Hindus (65.99%), Muslims (20.65%), Buddhists (4.85%), Jains (4.10%), Christians (3.27%) and Sikhs (0.49%).[341][342][343] The linguistic/ethnic demographics in the Greater Mumbai Area are: Maharashtrians (32%), Gujaratis (20%), with the rest hailing from other parts of India.[344]

Native Christians include East Indian Catholics, who were converted by the Portuguese during the 16th century,[345] while Goan and Mangalorean Catholics also constitute a significant portion of the Christian community of the city. Jews settled in Mumbai during the 18th century. The Bene Israeli Jewish community of Mumbai, who migrated from the Konkan villages, south of Mumbai, are believed to be the descendants of the Jews of Israel who were shipwrecked off the Konkan coast, probably in the year 175 BCE, during the reign of the Greek ruler, Antiochus IV Epiphanes.[346] Mumbai is also home to the largest population of Parsi Zoroastrians in the world,[347] numbering about 60,000, however their population is declining rapidly.[348] Parsis migrated to India from Greater Iran following the Muslim conquest of Persia in the seventh century.[349] The oldest Muslim communities in Mumbai include the Dawoodi Bohras, Ismaili Khojas, and Konkani Muslims.[350]

Marathi is the official and working language of the bureaucracy along with English. Mumbai has a large polyglot population like all other metropolitan cities of India. Sixteen major languages of India are spoken in Mumbai, with the most common being Marathi and its dialect East Indian. Marathi, and its dialect, as a single language is spoken by 35.30% of the population around 4,396,870 people.[354] Hindi is spoken by 25.90% of the population around 3,582,719 people, making it the second largest dominant language in Mumbai. Many Hindi speakers are workers from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar who migrate seasonally to Mumbai to work as labourers. Gujarati with 2,640,990 speakers is spoken by 20.4% of the population.[355]

Other languages spoken include Urdu by 11.69% of the population.[356][357] English is extensively spoken and is the principal language of the city's white collar workforce. A colloquial form of Hindi, known as Bambaiya – a blend of Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati, Konkani, Urdu, Indian English and some invented words – is spoken on the streets.[358]

Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam, Odia, Punjabi, Sindhi, Tulu, Assamese, Bengali, Bhojpuri are other minority languages spoken in Mumbai.

In the Suburbs, Marathi is spoken by 36.78% of the population and Gujarati by 31.21%.[359]

Schools in Mumbai are either "municipal schools" (run by the MCGM) or private schools (run by trusts or individuals), which in some cases receive financial aid from the government.[360] The schools are affiliated with either of the following boards:

• Maharashtra State Board (MSBSHSE)
• The All-India Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE)
• The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)
• The Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE)
• The International Baccalaureate (IB)
• The International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE).[361] Marathi or English is the usual language of instruction.[362]

The primary education system of the MCGM is the largest urban primary education system in Asia. The MCGM operates 1,188 primary schools imparting primary education to 485,531 students in eight languages (Marathi, Hindi, Gujarati, Urdu, English, Tamil, Telugu, and Kannada). The MCGM also imparts secondary education to 55,576 students through its 49 secondary schools.[363]

University of Mumbai is one of the largest universities in the world.[364]

Under the 10+2+3/4 plan, students complete ten years of schooling and then enrol for two years in junior college, where they select one of three streams: arts, commerce, or science.[365] This is followed by either a general degree course in a chosen field of study, or a professional degree course, such as law, engineering and medicine.[366] Most colleges in the city are affiliated with the University of Mumbai, one of the largest universities in the world in terms of the number of graduates.[367]

The University of Mumbai is one of the premier[368] universities in India. It was ranked 41 among the Top 50 Engineering Schools of the world by America's news broadcasting firm Business Insider in 2012 and was the only university in the list from the five emerging BRICS nations viz Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa.[369] Moreover, the University of Mumbai was ranked 5th in the list of best universities in India by India Today in 2013[370] and ranked at 62 in the QS BRICS University rankings for 2013, a ranking of leading universities in the five BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa).[371] Its strongest scores in the QS University Rankings: BRICS are for papers per faculty (8th), employer reputation (20th) and citations per paper (28th).[372] It was ranked 10th among the top Universities of India by QS in 2013.[372] With 7 of the top ten Indian Universities being purely science and technology universities, it was India's 3rd best Multi Disciplinary University in the QS University ranking.[372]

Indian Institute of Technology Bombay is a premier engineering institute in the country.

The Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (IIT Bombay), Mumbai,[373] Institute of Chemical Technology (formerly UDCT / UICT),[374] Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute (VJTI),[375] which are India's premier engineering and technology schools, along with SNDT Women's University are the autonomous universities located in Mumbai.[376] In April 2015, IIT Bombay launched the first U.S.-India joint EMBA program alongside Washington University in St. Louis.[377] Thadomal Shahani Engineering College is the first and the oldest private engineering college affiliated to the federal University of Mumbai and is also pioneered to be the first institute in the city's university to offer undergraduate level courses in Computer Engineering, Information Technology, Biomedical Engineering and Biotechnology.[378] Grant Medical College established in 1845 and Seth G.S. Medical College are the leading medical institutes affiliated with Sir Jamshedjee Jeejeebhoy Group of Hospitals and KEM Hospital respectively. Mumbai is also home to National Institute of Industrial Engineering (NITIE), Jamnalal Bajaj Institute of Management Studies (JBIMS), Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies (NMIMS), S P Jain Institute of Management and Research, Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS) and several other management schools.[379] Government Law College and Sydenham College, respectively the oldest law and commerce colleges in India, are based in Mumbai.[380][381] The Sir J. J. School of Art is Mumbai's oldest art institution.[382] It also has one of the best law schools or universities of the country which is National Law Universities (NLU).

Mumbai is home to two prominent research institutions: the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), and the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC).[383] The BARC operates CIRUS, a 40 MW nuclear research reactor at their facility in Trombay.[384]

Mumbai Veterinary College is the oldest and premier Veterinary College of India and Asia. Its foundation stone is laid in the year of 1886.

The ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education (CIFE) is a Deemed to be University and institution of higher learning for fisheries science in Mumbai, India. CIFE has over four decades of leadership in human resource development with its alumni aiding in the development of fisheries and aquaculture worldwide, producing notable contributions to research and technological advancements to its credit. The institute is one of four deemed to be universities operating under the Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR); the other three being the Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), the National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI) and the Indian Agriculture Research Institute (IARI)

Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus

The architecture of the city is a blend of Gothic Revival, Indo-Saracenic, Art Deco, and other contemporary styles. Most of the buildings during the British period, such as the Victoria Terminus and University of Mumbai, were built in Gothic Revival style.[409] Their architectural features include a variety of European influences such as German gables, Dutch roofs, Swiss timbering, Romance arches, Tudor casements, and traditional Indian features.[410] There are also a few Indo-Saracenic styled buildings such as the Gateway of India.[411] Art Deco styled landmarks can be found along Marine Drive and west of the Oval Maidan. Mumbai has the second highest number of Art Deco buildings in the world after Miami. In the newer suburbs, modern buildings dominate the landscape. Mumbai has by far the highest number of skyscrapers in India, with 956 existing skyscrapers and 272 under construction as of 2009. The Mumbai Heritage Conservation Committee (MHCC), established in 1995, formulates special regulations and by-laws to assist in the conservation of the city's heritage structures. Mumbai has three UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, the Elephanta Caves and the Victorian and Art Deco Ensemble.[412] In the south of Mumbai, there are colonial-era buildings and Soviet-style offices.[413] In the east are factories and some slums. On the West coast are former-textile mills being demolished and skyscrapers built on top. There are 237 buildings taller than 100 m, compared with 327 in Shanghai and 855 in New York.[414][413]

Source: Hindustan Times[459]