Jingpho language

• Standard Jingpho is the standard variety of Jingpho as used among the Kachin people in Myanmar, as well as by non-Kachin ethnic minorities in Kachin State. Most speakers live in Kachin State, though some live in Shan State and Sagaing Division. It is spoken primarily in Myitkyina, Bhamo, and Kutkai. Younger generations tend to pronounce /ts/ and /dz/ as [s] and [z], contrasting them with /s/ ([sʰ]). Standard Jingpho as spoken in Shan State often has ʔə- added to monosyllabic words, and also places the interrogative particle ʔi before verbs.
• Nkhum / Enkun 恩昆 (n̩˧˩kʰum˧ ka˧˩) is spoken in Lianghe, Ruili, Longchuan, and Luxi counties of Yunnan, China.[8] It is the most widely spoken Jingpho dialect in China. The Nkhum dialect displays tense-lax register contrast, whereas Shadan does not. Although the Shadan dialect frequently has -ŋ, Nkhum often does not. The Tongbiguan 铜壁关 variety of Nkhum is used as the Jingpho standard variety in China. Small pockets of speakers are also found in Gengma County.[9]
• Shadan / Shidan 石丹 (ʃă˩tan˧˩ ka˧˩; ʃă˩tam˧˩ ka˧˩[10]) is spoken in Yunnan, China.[8] It is spoken in the townships of Kachang 卡昌 and Taiping 太平 (in Getong 格同 of Mengzhi 蒙支, Zhengtonghong 正通硔,[11] and Longpen 龙盆[12]), located in Yingjiang County 盈江县.
• Gauri / Khauri (kau˧ʒi˧˩ ka˧˩[10]) is spoken in the Gauri Hills, located to the east of Bhamo. Villages include Prang Hkudung, Man Dau, Hkarawm Kawng, Manda, Ka Daw, Lamai Bang, Bum Wa, Ma Htang, Jahkai, and Loi Ming. In China, Gauri is spoken by about 300 people in Hedao 贺岛 and Hongka 硔卡 villages of Longchuan County, and in Kachang 卡场镇 of Yingjiang County.
• Mengzhi 蒙支 (muŋ˧˩tʃi˧˩ ka˧˩) is spoken by about 200 people in the two villages of Getong 格同 and Zhengtongyou 正通猶 in Mengzhi 蒙支, Yingjiang County 盈江县.[10]
• Thingnai is spoken near Mohnyin, southern Kachin State.

Small pockets of Jingpho speakers are also scattered across Gengma County 耿马县, including the following villages (Dai Qingxia 2010).[9] Dai (2010) also includes 1,000-word vocabulary lists of the Yingjiang 盈江, Xinzhai 新寨, and Caoba 草坝 dialects.

• Jingpo Xinzhai 景颇新寨, Mangkang Village 芒抗村, Hepai Township 贺派乡[13]
• Nalong 那拢组, Nongba Village 弄巴村, Gengma Town 耿马镇[14]
• Hewen 贺稳组, Jingxin Village 景信村, Mengding Town 孟定镇[15]
• Hebianzhai 河边寨, Qiushan Village 邱山村, Mengding Town 孟定镇[16]
• Caobazhai 草坝寨, Mang'ai Village 芒艾村, Mengding Town 孟定镇[17]

• Dingga: a recently discovered Jingpho variety spoken near Putao, Kachin State, in the villages of Ding Ga, Ding Ga Gabrim, Tsa Gung Ga, Layang Ga, Dai Mare, and Mărawt Ga. These villages are all located between the Shang Hka and Da Hka rivers in northern Kachin State. There are between 2,000 and 3,000 speakers.
• Duleng (tu˧˩leŋ˧) is spoken near Putao, in Machanbaw, and in the Nam Tisang valley of Kachin State. The only published description is that of Yue (2006).[18]
• Dingphan is spoken near Putao, Kachin State.
• Jilí / Dzili
• Khakhu is spoken near Putao, Kachin State.
• Shang is spoken near Putao, Kachin State.
• Tsasen is spoken in northwestern Kachin State.

Singpho (Northwestern Jingphoish) varieties of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, India include the following.

• Diyun is spoken in India.
• Numphuk is spoken by about 2,000 speakers in 20 villages, including Ingthong, Ketetong, Inthem, Kumsai, Bisa, Wagun 1, Wagun 2, Wagun 3, Wakhet Na, Kherem Bisa, Guju, and Giding. These villages are situated along the Burhi Dihing river in Assam, which is called the Numhpuk Hka river in Numphuk.
• Tieng is spoken in India.
• Turung is spoken by about 1,200 speakers mainly in the Titabor area (in the 3 villages of Pathargaon (Na Kthong), Tipomia, and Pahukatia) and the Dhonsiri river valley (in the villages of Balipathar, Rengmai, and Basapathar). There are many Tai loanwords in Turung. Some Turung speakers also self-identify as ethnic Tai.

Kurabe (2014) classifies seven Jingphoish dialects as follows.

• Proto-Jingpho
  • Southern
    • Gauri (Khauri)
    • Standard Jingpho, Nkhum (Enkun)
  • Northern
    • Northwestern
      • Numphuk
      • Turung
    • Northeastern
      • Duleng
      • Dingga

The Southern branch is characterized the loss of Proto-Jingpho final stop *-k in some lexical items. The Northern branch is characterized by the following mergers of Proto-Jingpho phonemes (Kurabe 2014:60).

• *ts- and *c-
• *dz- and *j-
• *ʔy- and *∅- (before front vowels)
• merger of Proto-Jingpho plain and preglottalized sonorants

• /h/ is only marginal and often appears in loanwords.
• /ɻ/ can also be heard as a fricative [ʐ].

Jingpho has four tones in open syllables, and two tones in closed syllables (high and low).[19] Tones are not usually marked in writing, although they can be transcribed using diacritics as follows:[19]

• ဗ – b – [b]
• ပ – p – [p]
• ဖ – hp – [pʰ]
• မ – m – [m]
• ဝ – w – [w]
• ဒ – d – [d]
• တ – t – [t]
• ထ – ht – [tʰ]
• န – n – [n]
• ည – ny – [nʲ]
• စ – s – [s~sʰ]
• ၡ – sh – [ɕ]
• ရ – r – [ɻ~ʒ]
• လ – l – [l]
• ယ – y – [j]
• ဇ – z – [t͡s]
• ဆ – ts – [t͡sʰ]
• ချ – ch – [t͡ɕ]
• ဂျ – j – [d͡ʑ]
• ဂ – g – [g]
• က – k – [k]
• ခ – hk – [kʰ]
• င – ng – [ŋ]
• ဟ – h – [h]
• အ – ' – [ʔ]

• ပ် – pf – [pf~ʰp]]
• ဖွ – f – [f]
• ွ – -w- – [-ʷ-]
• ြ – -r- – [-ᶼ-]
• ျ – -y- – [-ʲ-]

[-a] is the inherent vowel in every syllable.

• ိ – i – [i]
• ု – u – [u]
• ေ – e – [e]
• ေါ – o – [o]

• ဝ် – -u – [-u]
• ယ် – -i – [-i]

• ာ – tone
• ် – marks final consonant by silencing [-a][23]