Evenki language

Evenki is a member of the Tungusic family. Its similarity to Manchu, the best-documented member of the family, was noted hundreds of years ago, first by botanist P. S. Pallas in the late 18th century, and then in a more formal linguistic study by M. A. Castren in the mid-19th century, regarded as a "pioneer treatise" in the field of Tungusology.[10] The exact internal structure of the Tungusic family is a matter of some debate. Some scholars propose two sub-families: one for Manchu, and another for all the other Tungusic languages, including Evenki.[11] SIL International's Ethnologue divides Tungusic into two sub-families, Northern and Southern, with Evenki alongside Even and Negidal in the Northern sub-family, and the Southern family itself subdivided into Southwestern (among which Manchu) and Southeastern (Nanai and others).[12] Others propose three or more sub-families, or at the extreme a continuum with Manchu at one end and Evenki at the other.[11]

Bulatova enumerated 14 dialects and 50 sub-dialects within Russia, spread over a wide geographical area ranging from the Yenisei River to Sakhalin. These may be divided into three major groups primarily on the basis of phonology:[13]

1. Northern (spirant)
   1. Ilimpeya: Ilimpeya, Agata and Bol'shoi, Porog, Tura, Tutonchany, Dudinka/Khantai
   2. Yerbogachen: Yerbogachen, Nakanno
2. Southern (sibilant)
   1. Hushing
      1. Sym: Tokma or Upper Nepa, Upper Lena or Kachug, Angara
      2. Northern Baikal: Northern Baikal, Upper Lena
   2. Hissing
      1. Stony Tunguska: Vanavara, Kuyumba, Poligus, Surinda, Taimura or Chirinda, Uchami, Chemdal'sk
      2. Nepa: Nepa, Kirensk
      3. Vitim-Nercha/Baunt-Talocha: Baunt, Talocha, Tungokochen, Nercha
3. Eastern (sibilant-spirant)
   1. Vitim-Olyokma dialect: Barguzin, Vitim/Kalar, Olyokma, Tungir, Tokko
   2. Upper Aldan: Aldan, Upper Amur, Amga, Dzheltulak, Timpton, Tommot, Khingan, Chul'man, Chul'man-Gilyui
   3. Uchur-Zeya: Uchur, Zeya
   4. Selemdzha-Bureya-Urmi: Selemdzha, Bureya, Urmi
   5. Ayan-Mai: Ayan, Aim, Mai, Nel'kan, Totti
   6. Tugur-Chumikan: Tugur, Chumikan
   7. Sakhalin (no subdialects)

Evenks in China also speak several dialects. According to Ethnologue, the Hihue or Hoy dialect is considered the standard; Haila’er, Aoluguya (Olguya), Chenba’erhu (Old Bargu), and Morigele (Mergel) dialects also exist. Ethnologue reports these dialects differ significantly from those in Russia.

Some works focused on individual Russia dialects include Gortsevskaya 1936 (Barguzin), Andreeva 1988 (Tommot), and Bulatova 1999 (Sakhalin).

The Evenki language typically has CV syllables but other structures are possible.[14] Bulatova and Grenoble list Evenki as having 11 possible vowel phonemes; a classical five-vowel system with distinctions between long and short vowels (except in /e/) and the addition of a long and short /ə/,[15] while Nedjalkov claims that there are 13 vowel phonemes.[16] Evenki has a moderately small consonant inventory; there are 18 consonants (21 according to Nedjalkov 1997) in the Evenki language and it lacks glides or semivowels.[15]

Evenki is highly agglutinating and suffixing: Each morpheme is easily recognizable and carries only one piece of meaning. Evenki pronouns distinguish between singular and plural as well as inclusive and exclusive in the first person.[35] The Evenki language has a rich case system — 13 cases, though there is some variation among dialects — and it is a nominative–accusative language.[36] Evenki differentiates between alienable and inalienable possession:[37] alienable possession marks the possessor in the nominative case and the possessum in the possessed case, while inalienable possession is marked by personal indices.[38]

Below is a table of cases and suffixes in Evenki, following Nedjalkov (1997):

Plurals are marked with -il-, -l-, or -r- before the case marker, if any:

Evenki is a subject–object–verb and head-final language. The subject is marked according to the nominative case, and the object is in the accusative. In Evenki, the indirect object precedes the direct object.

The Manchu script was used to write Evenki (Solon) words in the "Imperial History of the National Languages of Liao, Jin, and Yuan". The Evenki did not have their own writing system until the introduction of the Latin script in 1931 and the subsequent change to Cyrillic in 1936–7.[40] The literary language was first based on the Nepa dialect of the Southern subgroup, but in the 1950s was redesigned with the Stony Tunguska dialect as its basis.[7] Ethnographer S. M. Shirokogoroff harshly criticised the "child-like" literary language, and in a 1930s monograph predicted it would quickly go extinct.[41] Although textbooks through the 8th grade have been published, "Literary Evenki has not yet achieved the status of a norm which cut across dialects and is understood by speakers of some dialects with great difficulty".[40] However, despite its failure to gain widespread acceptance, within its dialectal base of roughly 5,000 people, it survived and continues in use up to the present.[42] Since the 1930s, "folklore, novels, poetry, numerous translations from Russian and other languages", textbooks, and dictionaries have all been written in Evenki.[43] In Tura (former administrative center of the Evenk Autonomous Okrug), the local newspaper includes a weekly supplement written in Evenki.[42]

There is a large quantity of Russian loan words in Evenki, especially for technologies and concepts that were introduced by the Russian pioneers in Siberia. "Evenki is spoken in regions with heavy multilingualism. In their daily life the people come into contact with Russian, Buriat and Yakut, and each of these languages had affected the Evenki language. Russian is the lingua franca of the region, part of the Evenki population is bilingual, and part trilingual. All Evenki know Russian relatively well."[40] In 1998 there were approximately 30,000 ethnic Evenkis living in Russia and about 1/3 of them spoke the language. Even a decade ago Bulatova was trying to warn speakers and linguists alike: "There is widespread loss of Evenki and the language can be considered seriously endangered".[40] According to the 2002 Russian census, there are 35,527 citizens of the Russian Federation who identify themselves as ethnically Evenki, but only 7,580 speakers of the language.

In China, there is an ethnic population of 30,500 but only 19,000 are fluent in Evenki and only around 3,000 people are monolingual in Evenki. Juha Janhunen investigated multilingualism in Hulunbuir (northern Inner Mongolia) and the adjoining section of Heilongjiang (e.g. Qiqihar) in 1996. He found that most Solons still spoke Evenki, and about half knew the Daur language as well.[44] Furthermore, Mongolian functioned as a lingua franca among members of all minority groups there, as they tended to do their education in Mongolian-medium schools. The only Evenki-speakers whom Janhunen knew not to speak Mongolian as a second language were the Reindeer Evenki (sometimes called "Yakut") in the northern part of Hulunbuir, who used Russian as their "language of intercultural communication".[45] Janhunen predicted that all of these languages, including Mongolian, were likely to lose ground to Chinese in coming years.[46] However Chaoke noted more than a decade later that the usage rate of Evenki remained quite high, and that it was still common to find Evenki speakers who were proficient in three, four, or even five languages.[47]

There is a small population of Mongolized Hamnigan speakers of the Hamnigan dialect of Buryat in Mongolia as well, numbering around 1,000.

There is little information regarding revival efforts or Evenki's status now. In 1998, the language was taught in preschools and primary schools and offered as an option in 8th grade. The courses were regarded as an 'ethnocultural component' to bring Evenki language and culture into the curriculum.[48] Instruction as a second language is also available in the Institute of the Peoples of the North at Herzen University (the former St. Petersburg State Pedagogical University).[43] In the 1980s, Christian missionaries working in Siberia translated the Bible into Evenki and a Christian group called the Global Recordings Network recorded Christian teaching materials in Evenki.[49]

• Andreeva, T. E. (1988). Звуковой строй томмотского говора эвенкийского языка: Экспериментально-фонетическое исследование [Sound structure of the Tommot dialect of Evenki: an experimental phonetic study]. Novosibirsk: Nauka. ISBN 978-5-02-029187-4. OCLC 21826474.
• Bulatova, N. (1999). Язык сахалинских эвенков [Language of the Sakhalin Evenki]. St. Petersburg: North Without Conflicts Fund. ISBN 978-5-88925-009-8.
• Chaoke, D. O.; Tsumugari, Toshiro; Kazama, Shinjiro (1991). ソロン語基本例文集 [Solon Basic Sentences]. Sapporo: Faculty of Letters, Hokkaido University. JPNO 95049777.
• Gortsevskaya, V. A. (1936). Характеристика говоров баргузинских эвенков: По материалам Н. Н. Поппе [Characteristics of Barguzin Evenki dialects: Based on NN Poppe]. Moscow-Leningrad: Gosudarstvennoye Uchebno-Pedagogicheskoye Izdatel'stvo. ISBN 9780415026406. OCLC 41824692.
• Myreeva, A. N. (2004). Эвенкийско-русский словарь: около 30 000 слов [Evenki–Russian dictionary: about 30,000 words]. Novosibirsk: Nauka. ISBN 978-5-02-030684-4. OCLC 61282240.
• Vasilevich G. M. (1958). Эвенкийско-русский словарь. [Evenki-Russian dictionary. With an appendix and an outline of Evenki grammar]. Moscow. ISBN 978-5-458-59022-8.

Evenki language test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator

• Omniglot
• Kara, György (2007), "Course List: Evenki Grammar", Department of Central Asian Studies, Indiana University at Bloomington, archived from the original on 2016-06-12
• Evengus
• Эвенкитека – Эвенкийская библиотека [Evenkiteka – The Evenki Library]. (in Russian and Evenki). Retrieved 2011-09-08.
• Evenki DoReCo corpus compiled by Olga Kazakevich and Elena Klyachko. Audio recordings of narrative texts with transcriptions time-aligned at the phone level, translations, and time-aligned morphological annotations.