Saqaliba

The Volga trade route was established by the Varangians (Vikings) who settled in Northwestern Ruthenia in the early 9th century. About 10 km (6 mi) south of the Volkhov River entry into Lake Ladoga, they established a settlement called Ladoga (Old Norse: Aldeigjuborg).[8] It connected Northern Europe and Northwestern Ruthenia with the Caspian Sea, via the Volga River. The Rus used this route to trade with Muslim countries on the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, sometimes penetrating as far as Baghdad. The route functioned concurrently with the Dnieper trade route, better known as the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, and lost its importance in the 11th century.

Saqaliba originally was used to denote Slavic people, however later it came to denote all European slaves in some Muslim regions like Spain including those abducted from raids on Christian kingdoms of Spain. The Franks started buying slaves from the Slavs and Avar Khaganate while Muslims also came across slaves in the form of mercenaries serving the Byzantine Empire and settlers in addition to among the Khazars. Most Slavic slaves were imported to the Muslim world through the border between Christian and Islamic kingdoms where castration centres were also located instead of the direct route. From there they were sent into Islamic Spain and other Muslim-ruled regions especially North Africa. The saqaliba gained popularity in Umayyad Spain especially as warriors. After the collapse of the Umayyads, they also came to rule over many of the taifas. With the conversion of Eastern Europe, the trade declined and there isn't much textual information on saqaliba after 11th century.[9]

Central Europe was the most favoured destination for importation of slaves alongside Central Asia and Bilad as-Sudan, though slaves from Northwestern Europe were also valued. This slave trade was controlled mostly by European slave traders. France and Venice were the routes used to send Slavic slaves to Muslim lands and Prague served as a major centre for castration of Slavic captives.[10][11] The Emirate of Bari also served as an important port for this trade.[12] Due to the Byzantine Empire and Venice blocking Arab merchants from European ports, they later started importing in slave from the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea.[13]

The Saqaliba were also imported as eunuchs and concubines to Muslim states.[14] The slavery of eunuchs in the Muslim world however was expensive and they thus were given as gifts by rulers. The Saqaliba eunuchs were prominent at the court of Aghlabids and later Fatimids who imported them from Spain. The Fatimids also used other Saqaliba slaves for military purposes.[15]

The following list is derived from Bosworth 1996, p. 19.

• Muhārak and Muẓaffar: 1010/11–1017/18[16]

  to Tortosa: 1017/18–1020/21

• ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Abī ʿĀmir al-Manṣūr, son of Sanchuelo: 1020/21–1060
• ʿAbd al-Malik ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Niẓām al-Dawla al-Muẓaffar, son of prec.: 1060–1065

  to the Dhuʾl-Nūnids: 1065–1075

• Abū Bakr ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-Manṣūr, brother of prec.: 1075–1085
• ʿUthmān ibn Abī Bakr al-Qāḍī, son of prec.: 1085

  to the Dhuʾl-Nūnids

The following list is derived from Bosworth 1996, p. 17, who calls them the Banū Mujāhid. Mujāhid was a member of Muḥammad ibn Abi ʿĀmir's household.[16]

• Mujāhid ibn ʿAbd Allāh al-ʿĀmiri al-Muwaffaq: c.1012–1045
• ʿAlī ibn Mujāhid Iqbāl al-Dawla: 1045–1076

  to the Hūdids

• Labib al-Fata al-Saqlabi (Valencia 1017–1019): c. 1009–bfr. 1039/40
• Muqatil Sayf al-Milla: bfr. 1039/40–1053/4
• Ya'la: 1053/4–1057/8
• Nabil: 1057/8–1060
  • To Zaragoza: 1060–1081 or 2/3

• 1012 Aflah.
• 1014 Khayran. Slavic slave from Cordoba Caliph palace, who dedicated his rule to the development of Almería.
• 1028 Zuhayr, also a former Slavic slave from Cordoba
• 1038 Abu Bakr al-Ramimi
• 1038 Abd al-Aziz al-Mansur, al-Mansur's grandson, King of Valencia

From 1038 to 1041 Almería belonged to the Taifa of Valencia.