George C. Marshall

George Catlett Marshall Jr. was born in Uniontown, Pennsylvania, the youngest of three children born to George Catlett Marshall and Laura Emily (née Bradford) Marshall.[6][13] Both sides of his family were long from Kentucky, but cherished their Virginian roots.[14][upper-alpha 3] He was also a first cousin, three times removed, of former Chief Justice John Marshall.[15] Marshall's father was active in the coal and coke business.[13] Later, when asked about his political allegiances, Marshall often joked that his father had been a Democrat and his mother a Republican, whereas he was an Episcopalian.[16]

Marshall was educated at Miss Alcinda Thompson's private school in Uniontown and spent a year at Uniontown's Central School.[13] Having decided early in life that he desired a career in the military, but unlikely to obtain an appointment to the United States Military Academy because of his average grades, he looked to the Virginia Military Institute (VMI) for a formal education.[17] Marshall's brother Stuart, a VMI alumnus, believed George would not succeed and argued that their mother should not let George attend out of concern that he would "disgrace the family name."[18] Determined to "wipe his brother's face," Marshall enrolled at the age of sixteen in December 1897.[6][19] To pay for his tuition and expenses, Marshall's mother sold parcels of land she owned in Uniontown and Augusta, Kentucky.[17]

1900 VMI Keydets football team. Marshall circled

At the start of his college career, Marshall was subjected to a hazing incident in which upperclassmen positioned an unsheathed bayonet with the point up and directed him to squat over it.[20] After twenty minutes, Marshall fainted and fell.[20] When he awoke, he had a deep laceration to one of his buttocks.[20] While being treated for his injury, Marshall refused to inform on his classmates.[20] Impressed with his bravery, the hazers never bothered him again.[20]

During his years at VMI, Marshall always ranked first in military discipline and about midway academically.[6] He attained the rank of first captain, the highest a cadet could achieve, and graduated 15th of 34 in the Class of 1901.[6][21][22] Marshall received a diploma, not a degree.[22] At the time of his graduation, the top five or six VMI graduates received bachelor's degrees.[22] The rest received diplomas attesting to their status as graduates.[22] He played offensive tackle on the football team and in 1900 he was selected for All-Southern honors.[23]

Following his graduation from VMI, Marshall served as Commandant of Students at the Danville Military Institute in Danville, Virginia.[24] He took a competitive examination for a commission in the United States Army, which had greatly expanded to deal with the Spanish–American War and Philippine–American War.[25] Marshall passed, and used endorsements his father obtained from both of Pennsylvania's U.S. Senators to bolster his application.[25] VMI Superintendent Scott Shipp also supported Marshall's application, and in a letter to President William McKinley compared him favorably to other VMI graduates serving in the Army, saying Marshall was "Fully the equal of the best."[26] He was commissioned a second lieutenant of Infantry in February 1902.[25] In a matter of days he married, resigned the Danville job, and shipped out to serve with the 30th Infantry Regiment in the Philippines.[25][27]

Prior to World War I, Marshall received various postings in the United States and the Philippines, including serving as an infantry platoon leader and company commander during the Philippine–American War and other guerrilla uprisings.[6] He was schooled in modern warfare, including a tour at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, from 1906 to 1910 as both a student and an instructor.[28] He was the Honor Graduate of his Infantry-Cavalry School Course in 1907, and graduated first in his 1908 Army Staff College class.[6]

After another tour of duty in the Philippines, Marshall returned in 1916 to serve as aide-de-camp to Major General J. Franklin Bell, the commander of the Western Department and former Army chief of staff, at the Presidio of San Francisco.[29] After the American entry into World War I in April 1917, Marshall relocated with Bell to Governors Island, New York, when Bell was reassigned as commander of the Department of the East.[30] Shortly afterwards, Marshall was assigned to help oversee the mobilization of the 1st Division for service in France.[6]

Colonel Marshall in France in 1919

During World War I, Marshall had roles as a planner of both training and operations.[6] In the summer of 1917, he was assigned as assistant chief of staff for operations on the staff of the 1st Division.[6] After overseeing the division's mobilization and organization in Texas, he departed for France with the division staff in mid-1917.[6] On the long ocean voyage, his roommate was the division's assistant chief of staff for training, Lesley J. McNair;[31] the two formed a personal and professional bond that they maintained for the rest of their careers.[31] Marshall was the first passenger from the first boat transporting American Expeditionary Force (AEF) soldiers to set foot in Europe, and one of the first to enter the trenches of the Western Front.[32]

After arriving in France, Marshall served with the 1st Division on the St. Mihiel, Picardy, and Cantigny fronts.[6] In late 1917, John J. Pershing, the commander of the AEF, inspected the 1st Division.[33] Unimpressed by what he observed, Pershing began to berate division commander William L. Sibert in front of Sibert's staff.[33] Sibert took Pershing's criticism in silence, but when Pershing turned his attention to the division chief of staff, Marshall angrily interceded to inform Pershing of logistical and administrative difficulties of which Pershing was unaware.[34] Marshall also informed Pershing that the AEF staff had not been very helpful in dealing with the problems.[33] The division commander and staff were concerned that Marshall's willingness to confront Pershing had probably cost him his career.[33] Instead, Pershing began to seek out Marshall and ask for his advice.[33]

Marshall won recognition and acclaim for his planning of the Battle of Cantigny, which took place from May 28 to 31, 1918;[6] Marshall's success resulted in the first notable American victory of the war.[35] As he conducted pre-attack planning, Marshall traveled alone under cover of darkness to personally view the terrain and mentally map it.[36] Marshall ventured beyond the front lines and far into no-man's land, often under friendly artillery fire and routinely risking discovery and capture by Imperial German Army troops.[36] On May 26, he was injured while traveling to several subordinate units to conduct pre-attack coordination.[37] As he departed the division headquarters area, his horse stumbled, fell, and rolled over;[37] Marshall's left foot was caught in the stirrup, and he sustained a severe sprain and bruise.[37] A physician bound Marshall's injured ankle and foot with adhesive tape so he could avoid medical evacuation and remain with the division to oversee the attack.[38] In 1920, Marshall was awarded the Citation Star for his heroism during this battle.[36] When the Silver Star medal was created in 1932, Citation Stars were converted to the new award.[36][39][upper-alpha 4]

In mid-1918, Pershing brought Marshall on to the AEF operations staff, G-3, where he worked closely with Pershing and was a key planner of American operations.[6] He was instrumental in the planning and coordination of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, which contributed to the defeat of the German Empire on the Western Front in 1918.[40] Marshall held the permanent rank of captain and the temporary rank of colonel.[41] He was recommended for promotion to temporary brigadier general in October 1918, but the Armistice occurred before the recommendation was acted on.[41] After the Armistice, Marshall served as chief of staff for the U.S. Eighth Corps.[6]

After the war, Marshall reverted to his permanent rank of captain.[41] In 1919, he became an aide-de-camp to General Pershing.[6] Between 1920 and 1924, while Pershing was Army Chief of Staff, Marshall worked on a number of projects that focused on training and teaching modern, mechanized warfare. He taught at the Army War College and was a key planner in the War Department.[6] He then served as executive officer of the 15th Infantry Regiment in the Republic of China, where he remained for three years and learned to speak basic Mandarin.[6] In 1927, as a lieutenant colonel, he was appointed assistant commandant of the Infantry School at Fort Benning, where he initiated major changes to modernize command and staff processes, which proved to be of major benefit during World War II.[6] Marshall placed Edwin F. Harding in charge of the Infantry School's publications, and Harding became editor[42] of Infantry in Battle, a book that codified the lessons of World War I. Infantry in Battle is still used as an officer's training manual in the Infantry Officer's Course and was the training manual for most of the infantry officers and leaders of World War II.

Marshall's first wife died in 1927. The following year, while stationed at Fort Benning, Marshall met Katherine Tupper Brown at a dinner party.[18] They married on October 15, 1930, at Emmanuel Episcopal Church in Baltimore, Maryland.[43] The wedding made headlines as General Pershing served as Marshall's best man.[44]

From June 1932 to June 1933, Marshall was the commanding officer of the 8th Infantry Regiment at Fort Screven, Georgia.[6] From July 1933 to October 1933 he was commander of Fort Moultrie, South Carolina, and District I of the Civilian Conservation Corps, and he was promoted to colonel in September 1933.[6] During the Great Depression he became a strong supporter of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal.[45] He was senior instructor and chief of staff for the Illinois National Guard's 33rd Division from November 1933 to August 1936.[6]

Brigadier General Marshall in 1938

Marshall was promoted to general in 1936 and assigned to command the 5th Brigade of the 3rd Infantry Division and Vancouver Barracks in Vancouver, Washington, from 1936 to 1938, and was promoted to brigadier general in October 1936.[6] In addition to obtaining a long-sought and significant troop command, traditionally viewed as an indispensable step to the pinnacle of the US Army, Marshall was also responsible for 35 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps in Oregon and southern Washington.[6] As post commander Marshall made a concerted effort to cultivate relations with the city of Portland and to enhance the image of the US Army in the region. With the CCC, he initiated a series of measures to improve the morale of the participants and to make the experience beneficial in their later life. He started a newspaper for the CCC region that provided a vehicle to promote CCC successes, and he initiated a variety of programs that developed participants' skills and improved their health. Marshall's inspections of the CCC camps gave him and his wife Katherine the chance to enjoy the beauty of the American Pacific Northwest and made that assignment what he called "the most instructive service I ever had, and the most interesting."[46]

In July 1938, Marshall was assigned to the War Plans Division in Washington, D.C., and subsequently reassigned as Deputy Chief of Staff. In that capacity, then-Brigadier General Marshall attended a White House conference at which President Franklin D. Roosevelt proposed a plan to expand the United States Army Air Corps by 15,000 aircraft per year in preparation for World War II. With all other attendees voicing support, Marshall was the only one to disagree, pointing out the lack of consideration for logistical support or training. Marshall also spoke in favor of a large ground army although Roosevelt had said a large air force would be a greater deterrent to enemies, pointing out that the United States Army did not yet have a single division at full operational strength.[45] Despite others' belief then that Marshall had ended his career, his willingness to express disagreement resulted in Roosevelt nominating Marshall to be the Army Chief of Staff. At the time of the appointment, Marshall was only 34th in seniority, outranked by 21 major generals and 11 brigadier generals, but he was fifth under an unwritten rule that the chief of staff should be able to serve a four-year term before reaching the mandatory retirement age of 64.[47]

Upon the retirement of General Malin Craig on July 1, 1939, Marshall became acting chief of staff.[2] President Roosevelt favored Marshall because he was more supportive of New Deal liberalism than the conservative Douglas MacArthur, and because of the recommendations of Pershing, Craig, Louis A. Johnson, and most importantly Roosevelt's close advisor Harry Hopkins.[45] Marshall was sworn in as chief of staff on September 1, 1939, just hours after the Wehrmacht launched its invasion of Poland.[45][48] He held this post until retiring in November 1945.[49]

On May 11, 1940, the United States Congress cut $10 million from a $28 million appropriation budget for equipment to detect Imperial Japanese Armed Forces aircraft off the West Coast of the United States. Marshall met with Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. and they went to see Roosevelt; Marshall emphasized the supreme importance of getting the full amount and told Roosevelt "you have got to do something and you've got to do it today". Marshall's advocacy worked and he got "all he wanted and more".[50]

In 1941, Marshall became a Freemason, raised "at sight" by the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of the District of Columbia.[51] ("At sight" is the procedure by which a Grand Master confers on a candidate all three Masonic degrees - Apprentice, Fellowcraft, and Master - at one time.)[51]

As Chief of Staff, Marshall organized the largest military expansion in U.S. history, inheriting an outmoded, poorly equipped army of 189,000 men and, partly drawing from his experience teaching and developing techniques of modern warfare as an instructor at the Army War College, coordinated the large-scale expansion and modernization of the U.S. Army. During his first week in office he advised Roosevelt to issue an executive order expanding the Regular Army to 227,000 troops and the National Guard to 235,000 reservists, although the President could not immediately act because the United States Congress still favored isolationism.[52]

Marshall's efforts to expand the United States Armed Forces began to have more success after the Axis powers conquered most of Western Europe in the Battle of France. Beginning in July 1940, he was greatly assisted in this effort by newly appointed Secretary of War Henry Stimson, who Marshall would gradually displace as the most significant leader of the U.S. military apparatus in a deviation from the United States' tradition of civilian control of the military.[52] Though he had never actually led troops in combat, Marshall was a skilled organizer with a talent for inspiring other officers.[53] Many of the American generals who were given top commands during the war were either picked or recommended by Marshall, including Dwight D. Eisenhower, Jacob L. Devers, George S. Patton, Terry de la Mesa Allen Sr., Lloyd Fredendall, Lesley J. McNair, Mark Wayne Clark and Omar Bradley.[54]

Expands military force fortyfold

Cover to the book Infantry in Battle, the World War II officer's guide to infantry combat operations. Marshall directed production of the book, which is still used as a reference today.

Faced with the necessity of turning an army of former civilians into a force of over eight million soldiers by 1942 (a fortyfold increase within three years), Marshall directed McNair as commander of Army Ground Forces to focus efforts on rapidly producing large numbers of soldiers. With the exception of airborne forces, Marshall approved McNair's concept of an abbreviated training schedule for men entering Army land forces training, particularly in regard to basic infantry skills, weapons proficiency, and combat tactics.[55][56] At the time, most U.S. commanders at lower levels had little or no combat experience of any kind. Without the input of experienced British or Allied combat officers on the nature of modern warfare and enemy tactics, many resorted to formulaic training methods emphasizing static defense and orderly large-scale advances by motorized convoys over improved roads.[57] In consequence, Army forces deploying to Africa in Operation Torch suffered serious initial reverses when encountering German armored combat units in Africa in the Battle of Kasserine Pass and other major battles.[56] Even as late as 1944, U.S. soldiers undergoing stateside training in preparation for deployment against German forces in Europe were not being trained in combat procedures and tactics in use there.[58]

Replacement system criticized

Army Chief of Staff Marshall with Secretary of War Henry Stimson

Originally, Marshall had planned a 265-division Army with a system of unit rotation such as practiced by the British and other Allies.[59] By mid-1943, however, after pressure from government and business leaders to preserve manpower for industry and agriculture, he had abandoned this plan in favor of a 90-division Army using individual replacements sent via a circuitous process from training to divisions in combat.[59] The individual replacement system devised by Marshall and implemented by McNair exacerbated problems with unit cohesion and effective transfer of combat experience to new soldiers and officers.[56][60] In Europe, where there were few pauses in combat with German forces, the individual replacement system had broken down completely by late 1944.[61] Hastily trained replacements or service personnel reassigned as infantry were often given only a few weeks' refresher training before being thrown into battle with Army divisions locked in front-line combat.

The new men were often not even proficient in the use of their own weapons, and once in combat, could not receive enough practical instruction from veterans before being killed or wounded, sometimes within the first few days.[56][61][55] Under such conditions, many soldiers suffered a crippling loss of morale, while veterans were kept at the front until they were killed, wounded, or incapacitated by battle fatigue or illness. Incidents of soldiers going AWOL from combat duty as well as battle fatigue and self-inflicted injury rose rapidly during the last eight months of the war with Nazi Germany.[56][60][61] As one historian concluded, "Had the Germans been given a free hand to devise a replacement system..., one that would do the Americans the most harm and the least good, they could not have done a better job."[61][62]

Marshall's abilities to pick competent field commanders during the early part of the war was decidedly mixed. He was instrumental in advancing the careers of the highly capable generals such as Dwight D. Eisenhower, Omar Bradley, George S. Patton, Walter Krueger and Mark A. Clark. A notable exception was his recommendation of the swaggering Lloyd Fredendall to Eisenhower for a major command in the American invasion of North Africa during Operation Torch. Marshall was especially fond of Fredendall, describing him as "one of the best" and remarking in a staff meeting when his name was mentioned, "I like that man; you can see determination all over his face." Eisenhower duly picked him to command the 39,000-man Central Task Force (the largest of three) in Operation Torch. Both men would come to regret that decision, as Fredendall was the leader of U.S. Army forces at the disastrous Battle of Kasserine Pass.[54]

Planned invasion of Europe

Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall with Chief of the Army Air Force General Henry "Hap" Arnold in England on July 23, 1945.

During World War II, Marshall was instrumental in preparing the U.S. Army and Army Air Forces for the invasion of Continental Europe. Marshall wrote the document that would become the central strategy for all Allied operations in Europe. During the Arcadia Conference he convinced the United Kingdom to accept this strategy, including the focus on defeating Germany first and the establishment of international unified commands in control of all Allied forces in a given theatre. His push for unity of command, in particular through the Combined Chiefs of Staff and the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command, was met with resistance from the British Armed Forces under Alan Brooke because the scheme would allow the United States to dominate the Western Allied war effort, but the British government ultimately approved.[63]

He initially scheduled Operation Overlord for April 1, 1943, but met with strong opposition from Winston Churchill, who convinced Roosevelt to commit troops to Allied invasion of Sicily for the invasion of Italy.[64] Some authors think that World War II could have ended earlier if Marshall had had his way; others think that such an invasion would have meant utter failure.[65] Marshall and his advisors also opposed the Allied invasion of French North Africa after it became clear that Vichy France would offer resistance, concerns over an Axis intervention through Francoist Spain and Gibraltar, and suspicions that the operation was intended to defend European colonial territory with little strategic value to the war.[66]

When rumors circulated that Marshall would become the Supreme Commander of Operation Overlord, many critics viewed the potential transfer as a demotion, since he would leave his position as Chief of Staff of the Army and lose his seat on the Combined Chiefs of Staff.[67] While Marshall enjoyed considerable success in working with Congress and Roosevelt, he refused to lobby for the position. Roosevelt selected Eisenhower, in large part because he did not want to do without Marshall in the Chief of Staff position. He told Marshall, "I didn't feel I could sleep at ease if you were out of Washington."[68]

On December 16, 1944, Marshall became the first American Army general to be promoted to the newly created rank of General of the Army, a five-star rank that is the American equivalent of field marshal.[69] He was the second American to be promoted to a five-star rank, as William Leahy was promoted to fleet admiral the previous day.

Throughout the remainder of World War II, Marshall coordinated Allied operations in Europe and the Pacific. He was characterized as the organizer of Allied victory by Churchill. Time magazine named Marshall Man of the Year for 1943.[9] Marshall resigned his post of chief of staff on November 18, 1945, but did not retire, as regulations stipulate that Generals of the Army remain on active duty for life. He was succeeded as Army chief of staff by General of the Army Dwight Eisenhower.[10]

President Truman, Marshall, Secretary of State James F. Byrnes, and General Arnold at the White House, August 1945

After World War II ended, the Congressional Joint Committee on the Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack received testimony on the intelligence failure. It amassed 25,000 pages of documents, 40 volumes, and included nine reports and investigations, eight of which had been previously completed. These reports included criticism of Marshall for delay in sending General Walter Short, the Army commander in Hawaii, important information obtained from intercepted Japanese diplomatic messages. The report also criticized Marshall's lack of knowledge of the readiness of the Hawaiian Command during November and December 1941.[70] Marshall also advised President Roosevelt to move part of the United States Pacific Fleet to the Atlantic Ocean to assist Neutrality Patrols, and that the defenses at Oahu made a Japanese attack on the island impossible. These recommendations were dismissed by the President, but could have been catastrophic if they had not been.[71]

Ten days after the attack, Lt. General Short and Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, commander of the United States Pacific Fleet at Naval Station Pearl Harbor, were both relieved of their duties. The final report of the Joint Committee did not single out or fault Marshall. While the report was critical of the overall situation, the committee noted that subordinates had failed to pass on important information to their superiors, including to Marshall.[72][73]

A secret review of the Army's role, which resulted in the Clausen Report, was authorized by Secretary Henry Stimson.[74] The report was critical of Short and also of Colonel Rufus S. Bratton of the Military Intelligence Division (G-2), who investigator Henry Clausen concluded arrived at the War Department later on the morning of December 7, 1941, than he initially claimed during testimony, and invented a story about a warning to affected army commanders about the imminent Pearl Harbor Attack being delayed because he had been unable to get in touch with Marshall, an allegation which "nearly destroyed" Marshall.[74]

General Marshall with Chiang Kai-shek and Zhou Enlai in China, 1946.

In December 1945, President Harry Truman dispatched Marshall to the Republic of China, where he had served in the 1920s. His new mission was to prevent a resumption of the Chinese Civil War by brokering a coalition government between America's Kuomintang allies under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and the Chinese Communist Party of Mao Zedong. Marshall had no leverage over the Communists, but threatened to withdraw American aid essential to the Nationalists. Both sides rejected his proposals and he returned to the United States in January 1947.[75][76] As Secretary of State, Marshall disagreed with the Defense and State Department views that Chiang's success was vital to American interests, insisting that U.S. troops not become involved. The war continued, and the Communists won in 1949.

After Marshall's return to the U.S. in early 1947, Truman appointed him Secretary of State. As one of the most well-regarded and least politicized national leaders, he made an ideal front office personality. He became the spokesman for the State Department's ambitious plans to rebuild Europe. He did not design the plans, and paid little attention to details or negotiations. He did not keep current on details of foreign affairs. As one biographer notes, he had never been a workaholic.[77] He turned over major responsibilities to his deputies, especially Under-Secretary Robert A. Lovett, and refused to be troubled by minutiae. By 1948, with frailties building up, his participation was further curtailed. Marshall said, "The fact of the matter is that Lovett bears the principal burden as I get away whenever possible."[78]

General Marshall being sworn in as Secretary of State by Chief Justice Fred Vinson in the Oval Office on January 21, 1947.

On June 5, 1947, in a speech[79] at Harvard University, he outlined the American proposal. The European Recovery Program, as it was formally known, became known as the Marshall Plan. Clark Clifford had suggested to Truman that the plan be called the Truman Plan, but Truman immediately dismissed that idea and insisted that it be called the Marshall Plan.[80][81] The Marshall Plan would help Europe rebuild and modernize its economy along American lines, and open up new opportunities for international trade. Stalin ordered his satellites in Eastern Europe not to participate. Marshall was again named "Man of the Year" by Time in January 1948.[82]

Secretary of State Marshall speaks to The House Appropriations Committee. January 15, 1948.

Truman repeatedly rejected Marshall's advice on Middle Eastern policy.[83] As Secretary of State, Marshall strongly opposed recognizing the newly formed state of Israel. Marshall felt that if the state of Israel was declared, a war would break out in the Middle East (which it did when the 1948 Arab–Israeli War began one day after Israel declared independence). Marshall saw recognizing the Jewish state as a political move to gain American Jewish support in the upcoming election, in which Truman was expected to lose to Thomas E. Dewey. He told President Truman in May 1948, "If you (recognize the state of Israel) and if I were to vote in the election, I would vote against you."[84][85][86] However, Marshall refused to vote in any election as a matter of principle.[87][88][upper-alpha 5] [upper-alpha 6]

During his tenure as Secretary of State, Marshall also urged Truman to immediately call for The Netherlands to stop their invasion of Indonesia, a former Dutch colony which had declared independence in 1945. The Netherlands ignored the Truman administration's initial entreaties. As a result, the Marshall Plan program for the Netherlands' economic recovery was put on hold and the Truman administration threatened to cut all economic aid. The Netherlands finally agreed to withdraw and transferred sovereignty following the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference in 1949.[89]

Marshall resigned as Secretary of State because of ill health on January 7, 1949. He was severely exhausted throughout his tenure in the position. Dean Acheson in late 1947 said he was underperforming like "a four-engine bomber going only on one engine."[90] Truman named him to the largely honorific positions of chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission and president of the American National Red Cross.[91] He received the 1953 Nobel Peace Prize for his post-war work, despite the criticism that he was a warrior not a pacifist.[92]

Secretary of Defense George C. Marshall in his office at The Pentagon.

When the early months of the Korean War showed how poorly prepared the Defense Department was, President Truman fired Secretary Louis A. Johnson and named Marshall as Secretary of Defense in September 1950.[4] The appointment required a congressional waiver because the National Security Act of 1947 prohibited a uniformed military officer from serving in the post. This prohibition included Marshall since individuals promoted to General of the Army are not technically retired, but remain officially on active duty even after their active service has concluded.[93] Marshall was the first person to be granted such a waiver; in 2017, Jim Mattis became the second and in January 2021, General Lloyd Austin became the third.[94] Marshall's main role as Secretary of Defense was to restore confidence and morale to the Defense Department while rebuilding the United States Armed Forces following their post-World War II demobilization.

Korean War

Secretary of Defense George C. Marshall discussing the Korean War with President Truman and Special Assistant to the President Averell Harriman in the Oval Office.

Marshall worked to provide more manpower to meet the demands of both the Korean War and the Cold War in Europe. To implement his priorities Marshall brought in a new leadership team, including Robert A. Lovett as his deputy and Anna M. Rosenberg, former head of the War Manpower Commission, as assistant secretary of defense for manpower. He also worked to rebuild the relationship between the Defense and State Departments, as well as the relationship between the Secretary of Defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

Marshall participated in the post-Inchon landing discussion that led to authorizing Douglas MacArthur to conduct the UN offensive into North Korea. A secret "eyes only" signal from Marshall to MacArthur on September 29, 1950, declared the Truman administration's commitment: "We want you to feel unhampered strategically and tactically to proceed north of the 38th Parallel".[95] At the same time, Marshall advised against public pronouncements which might lead to United Nations votes undermining or countermanding the initial mandate to restore the border between North and South Korea. Marshall and the Joint Chiefs of Staff were generally supportive of MacArthur because they were of the view that field commanders should be able to exercise their best judgment in accomplishing the intent of their superiors.

Following Chinese military intervention in Korea during late November, Marshall and the Joint Chiefs of Staff sought ways to aid MacArthur while avoiding all-out war with China. In the debate over what to do about China's increased involvement, Marshall opposed a cease–fire on the grounds that it would make the U.S. look weak in China's eyes, leading to demands for future concessions.[96] In addition, Marshall argued that the U.S. had a moral obligation to honor its commitment to South Korea. When British Prime Minister Clement Attlee suggested diplomatic overtures to China, Marshall opposed, arguing that it was impossible to negotiate with the Communist government. In addition, Marshall expressed concern that concessions to China would undermine confidence in the U.S. among its Asian allies, including Japan and the Philippines. When some in Congress favored expanding the war in Korea and confronting China, Marshall argued against a wider war in Korea, continuing instead to stress the importance of containing the Soviet Union during the Cold War battle for primacy in Europe.

Cover of Together: Annals of an Army Wife, by Katherine Tupper Marshall. Published 1946.

George Marshall was the youngest of three siblings.[113] His older brother Stuart Bradford Marshall (1875–1956) was a graduate of the Virginia Military Institute, and became a manager and executive in several metal production corporations, including the American Manganese Manufacturing Company.[113][114][115] He later worked as a metallurgist and consulting engineer specializing in the production and operation of blast furnaces, coke ovens, and foundries.[114] George and Stuart Marshall were long estranged because George married Lily Coles, who a few years before had rejected Stuart's proposal.[113] When Stuart found out George was engaged to Lily, Stuart made unkind remarks about her, and George "cut him off my list."[113] Marshall's sister, Marie Louise (1876–1962) was the wife of Dr. John Johnson Singer, an Army physician who died in 1934.[116]

On February 11, 1902, Marshall married Elizabeth Carter "Lily" Coles at her mother's home in Lexington, Virginia.[23] Marshall met Lily after listening to her play the piano across the street from VMI.[117] Marshall, being immediately smitten, would "run the block," or leave barracks after hours, to be with her.[117] After traveling abroad to Japan, Korea, and China with Marshall, Lily returned to the U.S. to have a goiter removed. She died on September 15, 1927, after thyroid surgery that strained her weak heart.[118] They did not have children.[119]

On October 15, 1930, Marshall married Katherine Boyce Tupper (October 8, 1882 – December 18, 1978);[120][121] They had no children, but she was the mother of three children with Baltimore lawyer Clifton Stevenson Brown.[122] He had been murdered by a disgruntled client in 1928.[123] The second Mrs. Marshall was a graduate of the American Academy of Dramatic Arts; she later studied at the Comédie-Française, and toured with Frank Benson's English Shakespearean Company.[123] She authored a memoir in 1946, Together: Annals of an Army Wife.[124]

One of Marshall's stepsons, Allen Tupper Brown, was an Army lieutenant who was killed in Italy on May 29, 1944.[125] Another stepson was Major Clifton Stevenson Brown Jr. (1914–1952).[126] Stepdaughter Molly Brown Winn, the mother of actress Kitty Winn, was married to Colonel James Julius Winn, who had been an aide to Marshall.[127][122] Molly Winn was active in preserving Marshall's legacy, including preserving Dodona Manor and publishing Marshall's World War I memoirs.[127]

Grave site of George Marshall at Arlington National Cemetery

After a series of strokes, Marshall died at Walter Reed Hospital in Washington, D.C., on October 16, 1959.[128] Although he was entitled to official proceedings, Marshall preferred simplicity, so he received a special military funeral that dispensed with many of the usual activities.[129] The ceremonies included lying in state at Washington National Cathedral for 24 hours, guarded by representatives from each U.S. armed service and a VMI cadet.[129]

President Eisenhower ordered flags flown at half-staff, and was among the 200 guests invited for the funeral service held at Fort Myer.[129] Other dignitaries included former President Truman, Secretary of State Christian A. Herter, former Secretary of State Dean Acheson, former Governor W. Averell Harriman and Generals Omar N. Bradley, Alfred M. Gruenther, and Matthew B. Ridgway.[129] His parish priest, Franklin Moss Jr., from St. James Episcopal Church in Leesburg conducted the chapel and graveside services, assisted by former chief chaplain and National Cathedral Canon the Reverend Luther Miller.[129] In accordance with Marshall's wishes, there was no eulogy.[129] Following the burial service, an artillery battery fired a 19-gun salute and a bugler played taps. The flag that draped Marshall's casket was folded and given to Mrs. Marshall by a VMI cadet.[129]

Marshall was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, Section 7, Grave 8198, beside his first wife and her mother, Elizabeth Pendleton Coles (1849–1929).[128][130] His second wife was also buried with him after she died on December 18, 1978.[131] On its reverse side, the marble headstone lists General Marshall's positions held: "Chief of Staff U.S. Army, Secretary of State, President of American Red Cross, Secretary of Defense." The five-star rank adorns both sides of the stone.

George Marshall portrait by Thomas E. Stephens (c. 1949)

As William Taylor and other historians have recently emphasized, George Marshall was the best-known and most active – and most selfless – American leader in the early Cold War. His leadership had a distinct, signature style [132] which contained "Disdain for false speaking and dissembling", "Aura of Authority" and "Immensity of Integrity".[133] He viewed his world in definitive black and white with no vagueness in arguments or gray areas in decision-making.[134] Marshall is best known for giving his name and prestige to the Marshall Plan to rebuild the European economy. However, he suffered several defeats – he failed in the year-long effort to resolve the Chinese Civil War; he was defeated in his proposal to impose universal military service on all American men; and he was overruled by President Truman when he opposed the recognition of Israel. Historians agree that Truman depended heavily upon Marshall's prestige at a time of intensely bitter partisanship. Wilson Miscamble points to Marshall's delayed recognition of the threat posed by the Soviet Union – not until April 1947 did he realize the dangers. Miscamble concludes that recent studies show that Marshall was:

An important contributor but hardly a dominant figure in the making of postwar American foreign policy. He had a special gift for delegation and he drew forth impressive contributions from various capable subordinates.[135]

Marshall's reputation for excellence as a military organizer and planner was recognized early in his career, and became known throughout the Army. In a performance appraisal prepared while Marshall was a lieutenant in the Philippines, his superior, Captain E. J. Williams responded to the routine question of whether he would want the evaluated officer to serve under his command again by writing of Marshall "Should the exigencies of active service place him in exalted command I would be glad to serve under him." (Emphasis added.)[136]

In 1913, Lieutenant Colonel Johnson Hagood completed a written evaluation of Marshall's performance in which he called Marshall a military genius. Responding to the question of whether he would want his subordinate Marshall to serve under him again, Hagood wrote "Yes, but I would prefer to serve under his command." (Emphasis added.)[137] Hagood went on to recommend Marshall's immediate promotion to brigadier general, despite the fact that there were more than 1,800 officers, including Hagood, who were senior to him.[138]

After the surrender of the Nazi German government in May 1945, Henry L. Stimson, the Secretary of War, paid tribute to Marshall in front of a gathering of members of the Army staff, concluding with: "I have seen a great many soldiers in my lifetime and you, Sir, are the finest soldier I have ever known."[138]

Historians credit the high regard others had for Marshall's personal integrity as another reason for his positive legacy.[139] In addition to his willingness to confront Pershing over Pershing's berating of the 1st Division chief of staff during World War I, Marshall cited other instances where he provided persistent advice that kept Pershing from creating needless controversy.[139] In one, Marshall recalled a time when Pershing and James Harbord intended to change a War Department policy implemented by Peyton March, the chief of staff of the Army and Pershing's nominal superior, with whom Pershing had a long-running feud.[139] Marshall counseled against it several times, and Pershing angrily indicated that his chief of staff Harbord and he intended to submit their proposal despite Marshall's advice.[139] Rather than concede, Marshall replied that Pershing was letting his personal feud with March cloud his judgment and that Harbord, who also disliked March, was doing the same.[139] Instead of continuing to "pull rank," Pershing yielded to Marshall's judgment and said "Well, have it your own way."[139]

In another incident that highlighted Marshall's reputation for integrity, when President Franklin Roosevelt, a former Assistant Secretary of the Navy, favored the Navy during World War II planning, Marshall suggested that Roosevelt stop referring to the Navy as "us" and the Army as "them."[140] Roosevelt laughed, but Marshall's humorous protest had made its point.[140]

In addition to his military success, Marshall is primarily remembered as the driving force behind the Marshall Plan, which provided billions of dollars in aid to post war Europe to restart the economies of the destroyed countries. In recent years, the cooperation required between former European adversaries as part of the Marshall Plan has been recognized as one of the earliest factors that led to European integration beginning with the formation of the European Coal and Steel Community, and eventually the formation of the European Union.[141]

In a television interview after leaving office, Truman was asked which American he thought had made the greatest contribution of the preceding thirty years. Without hesitation, Truman picked Marshall, adding "I don't think in this age in which I have lived, that there has been a man who has been a greater administrator; a man with a knowledge of military affairs equal to General Marshall."[142]

Orson Welles said in a 1970 interview with Dick Cavett that "Marshall is the greatest man I ever met... I think he was the greatest human being who was also a great man... He was a tremendous gentleman, an old fashioned institution which isn't with us anymore."[143] The story Welles related to Cavett to illustrate his point was about a time he saw Marshall take the time to speak with a young, overawed American soldier who had accidentally entered the same room.[143]

Tributes and memorials

A statue of General Marshall is unveiled at the George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies on April 30, 1998.

Two non-profit organizations, the George C. Marshall Foundation and the George C. Marshall International Center, actively propagate General Marshall's legacy. The Marshall Foundation oversees Marshall's official papers and over two million other documents relating to the 20th century. The International Center preserves Marshall's home, Dodona Manor, as a museum and hosts educational programs focusing on Marshall's life, leadership, and role in American history.[46]

Numerous streets are named for General Marshall, including George-Marshall-Straße in Wiesbaden, Germany and George-C.-Marshall-Ring in Oberursel, Germany.[144][145]

On April 30, 1998, the George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies unveiled the first public statue of General Marshall in Europe in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany.[146] The slightly larger-than-life statue was sponsored by the Marshall Center, the Friends of the Marshall Center and the City of Garmisch-Partenkirchen. It shows Marshall in uniform walking across a bronze bridge, facing east, to greet new friends and allies and was designed by artist Christiane Horn of Wartenberg, Bavaria. Vernon A. Walters, former U.S. ambassador to Germany, was a keynote speaker during the dedication ceremony.[146]

• 
  General John Pershing rides under Arc de Triomphe in parade with aide-de-camp George C. Marshall. 1919.
• 
  General John Pershing (left) with Colonel Marshall in France, 1919.
• 
  Left to right: Brig. Gen. Frank Parker, Col. James A. Drain, and Lt. Col. George C. Marshall at the White House in Washington, D.C., on October 4, 1924.
• 
  Marshall as Army Chief of Staff, 1940.
• 
  Army Chief of Staff George Marshall with Air Force Chief of Staff Gen. "Hap" Arnold accompanying Brig. Gen. James H. Doolittle while being presented the Medal of Honor from President Franklin Roosevelt for his achievement on leading the Doolittle Raid. April 18, 1942.
• 
  Oveta Culp Hobby being sworn in as the first WAAC by Major General Myron C. Cramer. General George C. Marshall, second from left, and Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson witness the ceremony. May 16, 1942.
• 
  Army Chief of Staff George Marshall, 1944
• 
  Generals George C. Marshall and Henry "Hap" Arnold in 1944.
• 
  General Marshall greets Major General John R. Deane and Brigadier General Stuart Cutler while arriving at Potsdam, Germany on July 15, 1945.
• 
  General Marshall with General of The Air Force Henry H. Arnold and Air Force Major General Lauris Norstad at The Potsdam Conference in Germany, July 21, 1945.
• 
  Recently sworn in George C. Marshall as the new United States Secretary of State shaking hands with his predecessor James F. Byrnes, as President Truman looks on, at the White House, January 21, 1947.
• 
  Secretary of State George Marshall greeted by President Harry S. Truman at Washington National Airport. August 13, 1947.
• 
  Secretary of State Marshall pointing out landmarks at Mount Vernon to Mexican President Miguel Aleman. April 1947.
• 
  Award of honorary degrees at Harvard to J Robert Oppenheimer (left), George C. Marshall (third from left), Omar N. Bradley (fifth from left), and T. S. Eliot (second from right). The President of Harvard University, James B. Conant, sits between Marshall and Bradley. June 5, 1947.
• 
  Secretary of Defense Marshall with President Truman and Princeton University President Harold W. Dodds at the Library of Congress. May 17, 1950.
• 
  Anna M. Rosenberg being sworn in as Assistant Secretary of Defense by Felix Larkin (left), General Counsel of the Department of Defense. General George Marshall (second from right) and Robert A. Lovett (right), Deputy Secretary of Defense, witness. November 15, 1950.
• 
  Secretary of Defense George C. Marshall with President Truman, Secretary of State Dean Acheson, and Prime Minister of France Rene Pleven during Pleven visit to Washington D.C., at the White House on January 29, 1951.
• 
  Secretary of Defense George C. Marshall greeting President Truman following Truman's return from the Wake Island Conference at Washington National Airport, October 18, 1950.

Marshall has been played in film and television by:

• Keith Andes in the 1970 film Tora! Tora! Tora![147]
• Ward Costello in the 1977 film MacArthur.[148]
• Dana Andrews in the 1979 film Ike, The War Years.[149]
• Bill Morey in the 1980 television film Enola Gay: The Men, the Mission, the Atomic Bomb.[150]
• Norman Burton in the 1988 miniseries War and Remembrance.[151]
• Hal Holbrook in the 1989 television film Day One.[152]
• Harris Yulin in the 1995 television movie Truman.[153]
• Harve Presnell in the 1998 film Saving Private Ryan.[154]
• Scott Wilson in the 2001 film Pearl Harbor.[155]
• Donald Eugene McCoy in the 2009 Chinese movie The Founding of a Republic.[156]
• Marshall is a character in three different alternate history timelines from Harry Turtledove novels: Worldwar, Joe Steele, and The Hot War.[157][158][159]

President Roosevelt's nomination of General Marshall to be Major General. June 30, 1939.

Marshall's dates of rank were:[6][160]

Insignia	Rank	Component	Date
No pin insignia in 1902	Second lieutenant	United States Army	February 2, 1901 (Appointment accepted February 2, 1902)
	First lieutenant	United States Army	March 7, 1907
	Captain	United States Army	July 1, 1916
	Major	National Army	August 5, 1917
	Lieutenant colonel	National Army	January 5, 1918
	Colonel	National Army	August 27, 1918
	Captain	Regular Army	June 30, 1920 (Reverted to permanent rank)
	Major	Regular Army	July 1, 1920
	Lieutenant colonel	Regular Army	August 21, 1923
	Colonel	Regular Army	September 1, 1933
	Brigadier general	Regular Army	October 1, 1936
	Major general	Regular Army	September 1, 1939
	General	Army of the United States	September 1, 1939
	General of the Army	Army of the United States	December 16, 1944
	General of the Army	Regular Army	April 11, 1946

Note – Marshall relinquished his active duty status when he became secretary of state in January 1947. He was returned to active duty upon leaving office in January 1949.[161]

• German Marshall Fund
• George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies
• George C. Marshall Foundation
• USS George C. Marshall (SSBN-654)
• Marshall Scholarship
• George C. Marshall's Dodona Manor
• George C. Marshall High School
• George C. Marshall Space Flight Center

• Aldrich, Edward Farley. "The Partnership: George Marshall, Henry Stimson, and the Extraordinary Collaboration that Won World War II." (Stackpole Books, 2022)
• Alperovitz, Gar, Robert L. Messer, and Barton J. Bernstein. "Marshall, Truman, and the decision to drop the bomb." International Security 16.3 (1991): 204–221. online
• Brower, Charles F. George C. Marshall: Servant of the American Nation (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011) Excerpt.
• Bryan, Ferald J. "George C. Marshall at Harvard: A Study of the Origins and Construction of the 'Marshall Plan' Speech." Presidential Studies Quarterly (1991): 489–502. online Archived February 3, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
• Clarcq, J., DeMartino, R., & Palanski, M. E. "George C. Marshall: An enduring model of leadership effectiveness" Journal of Character and Leadership Integration (2011). 2:17–34.
• Cray, Ed. General of the Army: George C. Marshall, Soldier and Statesman (W.W. Norton & Company, 1990)
• Findling, John E. and Frank W. Thackeray eds. Statesmen Who Changed the World: A Bio-Bibliographical Dictionary of Diplomacy (Greenwood, 1993) pp 337–45.
• Friedrich, Tamara L., et al. "Collectivistic leadership and George C. Marshall: A historiometric analysis of career events." Leadership Quarterly 25.3 (2014): 449–467. online
• Gullan, Harold I. "Expectations of Infamy: Roosevelt and Marshall Prepare for War, 1938–41." Presidential Studies Quarterly Volume: 28#3 1998. Pages 510+ online edition
• Higginbotham, Don. "George Washington and George Marshall: Some Reflections on the American Military Tradition" (U.S. Air Force Academy, 1984) online.
• Hopkins, Michael F. "President Harry Truman's Secretaries of State: Stettinius, Byrnes, Marshall and Acheson." Journal of Transatlantic Studies 6.3 (2008): 290–304.
• Jordan, Jonathan W., American Warlords: How Roosevelt's High Command Led America to Victory in World War II (NAL/Caliber 2015).
• Kurtz-Phelan, Daniel. The China Mission: George Marshall's Unfinished War, 1945-1947 (W.W. Norton & Company, 2018) online review
• May, Ernest R. "1947–48: When Marshall Kept the U.S. Out of War in China". Journal of Military History 2002 66(4): 1001–10. ISSN 0899-3718
• Levine, Steven I. "A New Look at American Mediation in the Chinese Civil War: the Marshall Mission and Manchuria." Diplomatic History 1979 3(4): 349–375. ISSN 0145-2096
• Marshall, George C. Selected Speeches and Statements. Ed. Harvey A. DeWeerd (Infantry Journal, 1945).
• Munch, P. G. "General George C. Marshall and the Army staff: A study in the effectiveness of staff leadership". Military Review. (1994). 74:14–23
• Nelsen, J. T. "General George C. Marshall: Strategic leadership and the challenges of reconstituting the Army, 1939–1941" in Professional Readings in Military Strategy (Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, 1993) 7: 1–95.
• Olsen, Howard A. "George C. Marshall, emergence of a politician, 1 September 1939 to 6 December 1941" (Army Command And General Staff College, 1990) online
• Parrish, Thomas. Roosevelt and Marshall: Partners in Politics and War .(W. Morrow, 1989). 608
• Perry, Mark. Partners in Command: George Marshall and Dwight Eisenhower in War and Peace. (Penguin Press, 2007)
• Forrest Pogue, Viking, (1963–87) Four-volume authorized biography: complete text is online
  • George C. Marshall: Education of a General, 1880–1939
  • George C Marshall: Ordeal and Hope, 1939–1943
  • George C. Marshall: Organizer of Victory 1943–1945
  • George C. Marshall: Statesman 1945–1959
• Pops, Gerald. "The ethical leadership of George C. Marshall." Public Integrity 8.2 (2006): 165–185. Online
• Puryear Jr., Edgar F. 19 Stars: A Study in Military Character and Leadership. (Presidio Press, 2003)
• Online free to borrow
• Roll, David L. George Marshall: Defender of the Republic. (Dutton, 2019) online
• Steele, Richard W. The First Offensive, 1942: Roosevelt, Marshall, and the Making of American Strategy. (Indiana University Press, 1973)
• Stoler, Mark C. George C. Marshall: Soldier-Statesman of the American Century. (Twayne, 1989) 252
• Taaffe, Stephen R. Marshall and His Generals: U.S. Army Commanders in World War II. (University Press of Kansas, 2011) excerpt
• Thompson, Rachel Yarnell. Marshall: A Statesman Shaped in the Crucible of War. (George C. Marshall International Center, 2014). ISBN 978-0615929033
• Unger, Debi and Irwin with Stanley Hirshson. George Marshall: a Biography. (Harper, 2014). ISBN 9780060577193
• Weissman, Alexander D. "Pivotal politics—The Marshall Plan: A turning point in foreign aid and the struggle for democracy." History Teacher 47.1 (2013): 111–129. online, for middle and high school students
• Widener, Jeffrey M. "From General to Diplomat: The Success and Failure of George C. Marshall's Mission to China after World War II." Chinese Historical Review 27.1 (2020): 32–49.

• George C. Marshall on Nobelprize.org
• The Marshall Foundation
• The George C. Marshall International Center
• George C. Marshall Center, Garmisch Germany Archived January 17, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
• The Marshall Plan Speech MP3
• The Marshall Films Collection
• Marshall Scholarships
• The Marshall Plan Speech
• "George C. Marshall: Soldier of Peace" (Smithsonian Institution)
• Annotated bibliography for George Marshall from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
• The Last Salute: Civil and Military Funeral, 1921–1969, Chapter XIX, General of the Army George C. Marshall, Special Military Funeral, 16 – October 20, 1959 Archived November 26, 2011, at the Wayback Machine by B. C. Mossman and M. W. Stark. United States Army Center of Military History, 1991. CMH Pub 90–1.
• The George C. Marshall Index at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum, Part 1 and Part 2
• Task Force Marshall Information Page
• Joint Committee on The Investigation of Pearl Harbor, 79th Congress
• The short film Big Picture: The General Marshall Story is available for free download at the Internet Archive.
• George C. Marshall at IMDb
• Newspaper clippings about George C. Marshall in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
• Generals of World War II
• United States Army Officers 1939–1945

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