Canadian cuisine

Canadian cuisine consists of the cooking traditions and practices of Canada, with regional variances around the country. First Nations and Inuit have practiced their culinary traditions in what is now Canada since time immemorial. The advent of European explorers and settlers, first on the east coast and then throughout the wider territories of New France, British North America and Canada, saw the melding of foreign recipes, cooking techniques, and ingredients with indigenous flora and fauna.[1] Modern Canadian cuisine has maintained this dedication to local ingredients and terroir, as exemplified in the naming of specific ingredients based on their locale, such as Malpeque oysters or Alberta beef.[1] Accordingly, Canadian cuisine privileges the quality of ingredients and regionality, and may be broadly defined as a national tradition of "creole" culinary practices,[2] based on the complex multicultural and geographically diverse nature of both historical and contemporary Canadian society.

Divisions within Canadian cuisine can be traced along regional lines and have a direct connection to the historical immigration patterns of each region or province. The earliest cuisines of Canada are based on Indigenous, English, Scottish and French roots. The traditional cuisines of both French- and English-Canada have evolved from those carried over to North America from France and the British Isles respectively, and from their adaptation to Indigenous customs, labour-intensive and/or mobile lifestyles, and hostile environmental conditions. French Canadian cuisine can also be divided into Québécois cuisine and Acadian cuisine. Regional cuisines have continued to develop with subsequent waves of immigration during the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries, such as from Central Europe, Southern Europe, Eastern Europe, South Asia, East Asia, and the Caribbean. There are many culinary practices and dishes that can be either identified as particular to Canada, such fish and brewis, peameal bacon, and ginger beef, or sharing an association with countries from which immigrants to Canada carried over their cuisine, such as fish and chips, roast beef, and bannock.

Definitions

Pancake breakfast in Calgary

Though certain dishes may be identified as "Canadian" due to the ingredients used or the origin of their inception, an overarching style of Canadian cuisine may be more difficult to define. Some commentators, such as former prime minister Joe Clark, believe Canadian cuisine to be a collage of dishes from a variety of cultures. Clark himself has been paraphrased to have noted that "Canada has a cuisine of cuisines. Not a stew pot, but a smorgasbord."[3] Canadian food culture writer and author Jennifer Cochrall-King has said that "there is no single definition of Canadian cuisine. It starts with ingredients that spring from the landscape and with traditional dishes steeped in the region's history and culture."[4]

While the immense size of Canada, and the diversity of its inhabitants, compounds the difficulty in identifying a monolithic Canadian culinary tradition, Hersch Jacobs acknowledges that the lack of a hegemonic definition does not preclude the existence of Canadian cuisine.[5] Lenore Newman argues that there is a distinctly Canadian creole cuisine, and identifies five key properties that together define Canadian cuisine: its reliance on seasonality, multiculturalism, wild foods, regional dishes, and the privileging of ingredients over recipes.[6] This adaptation, preparation, and emphasis on specific local ingredients is of particular note, and a common theme in Canadian food is the use of foreign recipes, introduced by immigrants and their descendants, that have been modified for use of local products.[5] Tourtière, for example, is a Canadian meat pie of French origin that can be cooked with beef, pork or fish.[7] The sections on regionality and national foods below illustrate this tradition of diversity and emphasis on local elements, such as dulse and lobster in the Maritimes, deer meats in the Northern Territories, salmon and crab in British Columbia, or maple syrup in Central Canada.

Indigenous food may be considered uniquely Canadian, and the influence of Métis culture can be considered to have played a particularly important role in the origin of a distinct Canadian cuisine. Foods such as bannock, moose, deer, bison, pemmican, maple taffy, and Métis stews, such as barley stew, are all either traditional Indigenous foods, or originate from Canada with roots in Indigenous cuisines, and are eaten throughout the country.

There are many foods of foreign origin that are eaten commonly and considered integrated constituents of Canadian cuisine. Pierogies (dumplings of Central and Eastern European origin) are an example of this, due to the large number of early Ukrainian and Polish immigrants, while the ubiquity of roast beef and Yorkshire pudding are an example of the heavy English influence. As much of Canadian cuisine is coloured by the adaptation and development of dishes brought over by European, and later Asian, settlers, there is a variety of noteworthy Canadian variations on pre-established, templated food and drink, with their own nationally defined particularities, such as Canadian cheddar cheese, whisky, bread, wine, bacon, and pancakes.

In general, much of what is considered to be traditional Canadian cuisine contains strong elements of richness, breads and starches, game meat, and often stews and soups.[7] Certain culinary traditions in Canada, such as the frying of dough, which developed out of the country's voyaging and frontier culture, have seen to both the creation of distinct national foods and the flourishing of a broader national association with certain types of dishes. In the case of frying dough, for example, particular foods originating form Canada would include beavertails, apple fritters and toutons, whilst foods such as doughnuts, cronuts,[8] bannock, bagels, and pancakes, though not physically originating from Canada, have nonetheless developed within a broader tradition of nationally recognized cuisine.

History

A 1908 photo of an Ojibwe woman tapping for tree sap, which is made into maple syrup.

Canadian cuisine has been shaped by the historical and ongoing influences of indigenous peoples, settlers and immigrants.[5] Indigenous influences remain prevalent in Canada's contemporary food scene, alongside those of the three major immigrant groups of the 17th and 18th centuries: English, Scottish, and French. This diversity has been further expanded by subsequent waves of immigration in later centuries.[9]

Indigenous

The traditional Indigenous cuisine of Canada is based on a mixture of wild game, foraged foods, and farmed agricultural products. Indigenous peoples are known to have used more than five-hundred plant species for food. They cultivated and foraged a variety of plants, hunted a diversity of animals, and used various tools to boil, smoke/preserve and roast their food.[4] Each region of Canada, with its own First Nations and Inuit peoples, utilized local resources and distinct preparation techniques for their cuisines.

Maple syrup was first collected and used by the aboriginal people of Eastern Canada and the north-eastern United States, and Canada remains the world's largest producer.[10] Though the origin of maple syrup production is not clear, the earliest known syrups were made by repeatedly freezing the collected maple sap and removing the ice to concentrate the sugar in the remaining sap.[11] Maple syrup is one of the most commonly consumed Canadian food of Aboriginal origin.

Dried meat products such as pânsâwân and pemmican are commonly consumed by the indigenous peoples of the plains. In particular, the former was a predecessor for North American-style beef jerky, with the processing methods adapted for beef.[12]

In most of the Canadian West Coast and Pacific Northwest, Pacific salmon was an important food resource to the First Nations peoples, along with certain marine mammals. Salmon were consumed fresh during the spawning season, or smoked dry to create a jerky-like food that could be stored year-round. The latter food is commonly known and sold as "salmon jerky".

Whipped soapberry, known as sxusem (sk-HOO-shum, "Indian ice cream") in the Interior Salish languages of British Columbia, is consumed similarly to ice cream or as a cranberry-cocktail-like drink. It is known for being a kidney tonic, which are called agutak in Arctic Canada (with animal/fish fat).

Sliced and prepared muktuk

In the Arctic, Inuit traditionally survived on a diet consisting of land and marine mammals, fish, and foraged plant products. Meats were consumed fresh, but also often prepared, cached, and allowed to ferment into igunaq or kiviak. These fermented meats have the consistency and smell of certain soft aged cheeses. Snacks such as muktuk, which consist of whale skin and blubber is eaten plain, though occasionally dipped in soy sauce. Chunks of muktuk are sliced with an ulu prior to or during consumption.

Fish are eaten boiled, fried, and prior to today's settlements, often in dried forms. The so-called "Eskimo potato", (Inuit: oak-kuk: Claytonia tuberosa)[13] and other "mousefoods", are some of the plants consumed in the Arctic.

Foods such as "bannock", popular with First Nations and Inuit, reflect the historic exchange of these cultures with European fur traders, who brought with them new ingredients and foods.[14] Common contemporary consumption of bannock, powdered milk, and bologna by aboriginal Canadians reflects the legacy of Canadian colonialism in the prohibition of hunting and fishing, and the institutional food rations provided to Indian reserves.[15] Due to similarities in treatment under colonialism, many Native American communities throughout the continent consume similar food items, with some emphasis on local ingredients.

North and West European

Oatcakes were first brought to Atlantic Canada by Scottish Highlanders in 1773, and remain a staple of Halifax coffee shops.[16]

Settlers and traders from the British Isles account for the culinary influences of early English Canada in the Maritime provinces and Southern Ontario (Upper Canada).[5] Cuisines found in Newfoundland and the Maritimes derive largely from British and Irish cooking, with a preference for salt-cured fish, beef, and pork. Ontario, Manitoba and British Columbia also maintain strong British culinary traditions. The French settlers of New France, who would become the Canadiens and Acadians, account for much of the cuisine of southern Quebec (Lower Canada), Northeastern Ontario, and New Brunswick.[5]

Seafood had an important influence on the early European settlers and explorers of Atlantic Canada, which continues to be expressed in Maritime cuisine and culture to this day. In the late 15th-century, John Cabot's journey to the shores of what would become Newfoundland brought England knowledge of the Grand Banks and their abundance in cod. He is reported to have told King Henry VII that "the sea was covered with fish which could be caught not merely by nets, but weighted basket lowered into the water."[17] Fleets of fishermen from England, France, Portugal, and Spain flocked to Newfoundland to return with fish, filling a market need in Europe and cutting out the necessity of importing from Iceland.[18] The English, Scottish, Irish, and French settlers of what would become the Atlantic provinces frequently built their communities beside the ocean and rivers for easy access, and the fishing industry along the Canadian east coast steadily expanded until it became the region's major industry.[18] Accounts from early settlers list fish that were caught, sold, and incorporated into local meals, such as trout, eels, mackerel, oysters, lobsters, salmon, cod and herring.[18] Meals that incorporated such fish included, and continue to include, fried cod roe, fried or baked cod tongues, stewed or fried cod heads, fish hash, codfish balls, cod sounds, toast and fish, roasted scrawn, fish and brewis, salt fish and potatoes, and boiled rounders, among others.[18] The abundance of seafood and the ease by which it could be obtained made the British and French colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Acadia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland and Labrador attractive destinations for settlers.

Wild turkeys in Ottawa

The influx of United Empire Loyalists into British North America in the 18th century, and the subsequent establishment of Upper Canada, saw the wider expansion of British cooking with indigenous ingredients in the future province of Ontario. These settlers established customs similar to their compatriots in England, but with a particular focus on dietary staples, such as meat, bread, and tea.[19] Local forage and game were typically incorporated into the cooking of early English-Canadians in Upper Canada, such as wild berries, maple sugar, venison, partridge, waterfowl, maize, pumpkin, and turkey.[19] Meals often contained more meat than was typical in England and were particularly reliant on pork and potatoes during early settlement, although these meals began to include beef and mutton as farming became more established in the region.[19] Roasting was a common method of cooking for Upper Canadians, and Scottish immigration, largely onset by the Highland Clearances, brought a wider emphasis on mutton.[19]

Canadians taking tea at a picnic beside the Bay of Quinte, Prince Edward County (1909 August)

The Victorian era saw a greater swell of British immigration to Upper Canada, Lower Canada, and the Atlantic colonies, and the urban and rural development that followed encouraged the spread of eating establishments, local cookbooks, and a busier ingredients market. By the mid-19th century, there was a tavern every couple odd miles along the major roads of Upper Canada, and there were reportedly twenty-nine alone along the route between Halifax and Digby, Nova Scotia.[20] The larger urban centres, such as Toronto, Kingston, and Coburg in Upper Canada, Montreal and Quebec City in Lower Canada, and Halifax in Nova Scotia, saw the opening of hotels that could better serve a burgeoning upper class of Victorian patrons.[21] These hotels, broadly, provided beef steak, fried pork, buckwheat cakes, roast beef and pork, wild game and fowl, vegetables, pudding, and tea.[22] Cookbooks published during this period include The Home Cookbook (1877) and The Galt Cook Book (1898).[23] Traditions that developed out of the Victorian era in Canada include the Victorian cooking fireplace, which saw continued use in homes and restaurants even after the metal stove was introduced, and picnics, which often involved ham, fowl, meat pies, tarts, and cakes.[24]

In the territory of Rupert's Land, the development of communities throughout the 17th, 18th, and early 19th centuries, which centred around Hudson's Bay Company and North West Company trading posts, saw to the intermingling of European (largely Scottish and French) traders, clerks, guides, and canoers with the local Indigenous population.[25] The resulting genesis of the Métis culture saw to the development of cuisine in the Canadian West which combined the culinary traditions of these previously separate groups. With the arrival of the Earl of Selkirk and his Scottish retinue (people largely displaced by the Highland Clearances), as well as the purchase of forty-five million acres of land in the Red River Valley, many Scottish culinary traditions were brought to the region.[25] These foods included black bun, haggis, honey cakes, and rowies. Cooperation with the local Métis saw Scottish immigrants hunting buffalo and incorporating game into their meals.[25] The completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the late 19th-century led to a significant influx of not just settlers of British origin, but of also a multitude of different backgrounds, notably Ukrainian, Polish, German, Scandinavian, Belgian, Dutch, Greek, Czech, Slovak, Chinese, American, Mennonite, and Jewish.[25] It is in this way that the Canadian Prairies, or the future provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, were a frontier of multicultural community-building in Canada, and the creation of a regional cuisine which absorbed influences from a variety of ethnic, national, and religious backgrounds.

Icelandic immigration has a particular influence on the cuisine of Manitoba, which, besides Iceland itself, has a larger Icelandic population than anywhere else in the world. One example is vinarterta, a layer cake filled with prune jam and flavoured with cardamom, and a popular Christmas treat in Manitoba. Bakeries in the province often include other pastries brought over and adapted from Iceland, including kleinur (similar to doughnuts), laufabrauõ (flatbread decorated with patterns), kransakaka (a type of cake with almonds), and ugbraud (a rye bread).[26]

Ontario's southwestern regions also have strong Dutch and Scandinavian influences.

Central and East European

Loaf of Ukrainian rye bread from New Westminster

In Canada's Prairie provinces, which saw significant immigration from Eastern and Northern Europe in the pre-WWI era, Ukrainian, German, and Polish cuisines are strong culinary influences. Such examples include perogies, kielbasa, and babka. Emigration from Russia to Western Canada in the late 19th and early 20th centuries also established a Doukhobor influence, noted in particular for its emphasis on vegetarian recipes on the cuisine of the British Columbia Interior and the Prairies.[5]

The Waterloo, Ontario, region and the southern portion of Manitoba have traditions of Mennonite and German cookery.

Jewish immigrants to Canada during the late 1800s played a significant culinary role within Canada, chiefly renowned for Montreal-style bagels and Montreal-style smoked meat. A regional variation of both emerged within Winnipeg, Manitoba's Jewish community, which also derived Winnipeg-style cheesecake from New York City recipes. Winnipeg has given birth to numerous other unique dishes, such as the schmoo torte, smoked goldeye and "co-op style" rye bread and cream cheese.

East Asian

Sai Woo restaurant and heritage building in Vancouver Chinatown

Chinese immigration to Canada, beginning predominantly in the 1850s, saw to the local modification of dishes imported from Qing China. Much of what are considered to be "Chinese dishes" in Canada are largely Canadian or North American inventions, with Chinese restaurants having tailored their traditional cuisine to local tastes, local ingredients, and a largely non-Chinese clientele.[5] This "Canadian Chinese cuisine" is widespread across the country, with great variation from place to place. Examples of such variation are seen in unique regional dishes, including Calgary ginger beef,[27] Montreal peanut-butter dumplings,[28] Newfoundland chow mein,[29] and Thunder Bay bon bons.[30]

The "Chinese buffet", although found in other parts of North America, traces its origins to early Gastown, Vancouver, c.1870. This meal format developed from the practice of Chinese restaurateurs providing a steam table on a sideboard to serve Scandinavian lumberjacks working in local forests and mills.

Japanese-Canadians have had a profound influence on the cuisines of British Columbia and Ontario. Distinct varieties of sushi, such as the B.C. roll and the California roll, originate from the Metro Vancouver region, while sushi pizza was invented in Toronto. Japadog street food in Vancouver is also a popular example of Canadian west coast fusion cuisine.

South Asian

Kedgeree, an Anglo-Indian dish imported from the British Raj, is commonly found in Indo-Canadian restaurants.

Indian and South Asian culinary influences are a relatively recent addition to Canadian cuisine, having gained wider prominence in the country during the post-1960's era of immigration,[31] despite earlier South Asian settlement in British Columbia dating back to the late 19th century.[32] Indian food is particularly popular in Canada, deriving mostly from Northern Indian cuisine. It is characterized for its use of bread, curry, and use of yogurt and cream for meat-based dishes; it also draws inspiration from South Indian cuisine in its use of sour and spicy combinations.[31]

Unique Indo-Canadian food includes the East Indian roti wrap, which gained popularity in Toronto during the 1980s and 1990s; using North Indian/Pakistani bread and curries as stuffing, local chefs originally drew inspiration from the West Indian roti which had entered the city's food scene in the 1960s and 1970s after a wave of Caribbean immigration.[33] Also known as butter chicken roti,[34] the dish is served at many Indian restaurants and fast food locations across Southern Ontario.[35]

Other Canadian food unique to the South Asian community includes "Indian-style pizza" (also known as "Punjabi-style pizza" or "Desi-style pizza")[36] which has gradually gained popularity since the 1980s[37] in major urban centres across western and central Canada with large South Asian populations, including Greater Vancouver,[38][39] Calgary,[40] Edmonton,[41] Regina,[42] Winnipeg,[36] Ottawa,[43] and Greater Toronto,[44] later expanding to other regions.[45] This type of pizza typically includes sauce with mixed spices and toppings such as cilantro, ginger, spinach, cauliflower, tandoori chicken, butter chicken, or paneer.[36]

Southeast Asian

Contributions from Southeast Asia to Canadian cuisine includes a style of medium-thick crust pizza Margherita in Toronto. An example of fusion cuisine, the pizza is topped with garlic and basil oil topping, combining an Italian pizza with the Vietnamese tradition of using herbed oil toppings in food.[46]

Regional ingredients

While numerous and varied ingredients are commonly found throughout Canada, each region, with its tradition of culinary development, utilizes locally derived ingredients, both wild and agricultural, which are used to define unique dishes. The table below is meant to provide particular examples of regional staples and their key local ingredient.

Ingredients and defining dishes by region
IngredientDefining dishPacificMountainPrairiesOntarioQuebecAtlanticNorthern
Atlantic codFish and brewis

Cod tongues[47]

X
BeefAlberta grilled beef steak[48]

Ginger beef

XX
CaribouCaribou stew[49]X
BakeappleBakeapple pie[50]

Bakeapple jam

X
Digby scallopsSeared scallops[51]X
DulseDulse crisps[52]X
Fiddlehead fernsBoiled fiddleheads[53]XXX
Geoduck[54]Sashimi geoduck[55]X
Harp sealFlipper pieXX
LambSalt Spring Island grilled lamb chops[56]X
LobsterBoiled lobster[51]

Lobster roll

XX
Maple syrupPancakesXXX
Pacific dungeness crabBoiled crab legs[56]

Crab cakes

X
Pacific salmonSmoked salmon[57]

Candied salmon[57]

X
PorkFarmer sausage[58]

Kubasa / Kubie burger[59]

X
PotatoesPoutineXXX
Saskatoon berrySaskatoon berry jam

Saskatoon berry pie

XXX
SoapberrySxusemX
Summer savouryDressingX
Winnipeg goldeyeSmoked goldeyeX

Wild game of all sorts is still hunted and eaten by many Canadians, though not commonly in urban centres. Venison, from white-tailed deer, moose, elk (wapiti) or caribou, is eaten across the country and is considered quite important to many First Nations cultures.[60] Seal meat is eaten, particularly in the Canadian North, the Maritimes, and Newfoundland and Labrador. Wild fowl like ducks and geese, grouse (commonly called partridge) and ptarmigan are also regularly hunted. Other animals like bear and beaver may be eaten by dedicated hunters or indigenous people, but are not generally consumed by much of the population.

Seafood is a very common constituent of Canadian cuisine broadly, but particularly in British Columbia and the Atlantic provinces. West Coast salmon varieties include sockeye, coho, chinook (also known as king), and pink, while salmon used on the East Coast can be broadly defined as Atlantic salmon. Freshwater fish, such as the walleye (also known as pickerel) and lake whitefish are commercially fished in the Great Lakes and are popular in southern Ontario. Both wild-caught and farmed rainbow trout are consumed throughout Canada.

Although the majority of Canada's fish yield is captured wild, about 28% of the country's yield came from aquaculture in 2018.[61] British Columbia accounts for 49% of the country's total aquaculture production volume, while the Maritime provinces account for 46%. Canada is the world's fourth-largest producer of farmed salmon, and other species, such as trout, Arctic char, mussels, oysters, and clams are well established industries.[62]

Forage in Canadian cooking can include a variety of berries, mushrooms, Canada rice and herbs. Wild chanterelle, pine, morel, lobster, puffball, and other mushrooms are commonly consumed. Gooseberries, salmonberries, cranberries, strawberries, Saskatoonberries, cloudberries, soapberries, blackberries, blueberries, bilberries, currants, and huckleberries are gathered wild or grown.

Alberta is renowned for its production of beef; in 2016, Alberta's cattle herd accounted for 41.6% of the national total.[63] Alberta beef is thought to have a rich marbled flavour due to the province's nutritious grasslands and barley. Examples of local recipes that utilize Alberta beef include beef tartare, bistecca, short ribs, ginger fried beef, and grilled steak.[64] Canada ranks among the world's top 10 per capita consumers of beef.[65]

Saskatchewan is often referred to as the "breadbasket of Canada"; it accounts for nearly 50% of Canada's total crop yield and for two-fifths of the country's total field acreage.[66] In 2016, canola and spring wheat were the two largest crops, Saskatoon berries accounted for over half of the "fruit, berry and nut area", and sweet corn was the largest field vegetable crop by area.[66] Saskatchewan also produces most of the country's spice yield, particularly mustard, but also caraway and coriander.[67]

Canadian foods

Main dishes, side dishes and appetizers

Although there are considerable overlaps between Canadian culinary practices and those of the British Isles, France and the rest of North America, many dishes (or variations of imported dishes) are particular to, quintessential of, or available only in Canada.

Breads

Dishes by region ("O" = originating and "X" = found)
DishDescriptionPacificMountainPrairiesOntarioQuebecAtlanticNorthernInherited
BannockPan-fried bread.XXXXXXXO
Canadian-style johnnycakeSweet and salty cornmeal cake topped with maple syrup and butter. Consists of pastry flour, shortening, and brown sugar.[68]XXXXXO
Montreal-style bagelsSweet, firm, wood-fired bagel.XO
OatcakesType of flatbread similar to a cracker or biscuit; sometimes takes the form of a pancake. Prepared with oatmeal and either cooked on a griddle or baked.XO
Pancakes (Canadian)Made from a starchy batter of whole-wheat flour, baking soda, sugar, eggs, milk, and butter; adapted from the German Pfannkuchen.[69] It is a particularly fluffy pancake due to the folding and beating method required in preparing the mixture.[70] Maple syrup and fruit are common toppings.XXXXXXXO
PloyeFlatbread made of a buckwheat flour, wheat flour, baking powder and water mix. Often served with maple syrup, cretons, or beans.O
ToutonFried bread dish from Newfoundland.O

Miscellaneous

Dishes by region ("O" = originating and "X" = found)
DishDescriptionPacificMountainPrairiesOntarioQuebecAtlanticNorthernInherited
Back or peameal bacon (i.e. Canadian bacon)Wet-cured, unsmoked back bacon made from trimmed lean boneless pork loin rolled in cornmeal.XXXOXXX
Baked beansBeans cooked with maple syrup or molasses.XXXXXXO
BouilliQuébécois beef and vegetable pot roast.O
Calgary-style ginger beefCandied and deep fried beef, with sweet ginger sauce.XOX
Fried macaroniStir-fried pasta with soy sauce, meat, and vegetables.[71]O
Halifax donairGround beef donair kebab served with a sweet milk sauce; a variation is common in Quebec patateries, known simply as a souvlaki pita.XXXXO
Hot chicken sandwichChicken (or turkey) sandwich doused in gravy and peas.XXXXXXO
Hot hamburger sandwich[72]Hamburger patty between sliced bread doused in gravy, popularized by the former Zellers Family Restaurant, a variation is the Italian Hamburger with tomato sauce.XXXOXXX
JapadogVancouver street food; hot dog-style sausage and bun served with various Japanese-inspired toppings, such as okonomiyaki, yakisoba, teriyaki and tonkatsu.O
Jellied moose noseSimilar to European head cheese; made with a combination of boiled and sliced moose nose meat (dark meat around the bones and white meat from the bulb of the nose), garlic, onions, salt, pepper, vinegar, and spices such as cloves, mustard seeds, cinnamon, or allspice. It is then cooled and refrigerated until solidified. Served as a loaf cut into slices.[73]O
Jiggs dinnerSunday meal similar to the New England boiled dinner.O
Kubie burgerHamburger consisting of a Ukrainian garlic sausage, referred to as "kubie", that is pressed and then served in a bun or bread roll. Name comes from the Albertan abbreviation of the word "kubasa", which is the corrupted name for kovbasa, meaning "sausage" in Ukrainian.[59]XO
London broilGround meat, pork sausage, or minced veal wrapped in a butterflied and tenderized flank or round steak.XOX
Maple slawCanadian version of coleslaw, consisting of cabbage, onions, maple syrup, and seasonings. Variations include apple cider vinegar, celery seeds, mayonnaise, cheese, cereals, and chocolate. Served as salad, dessert or snack, or condiment for burgers and sandwiches.[74]XXXXXXX
Mashed potatoes (instant)Cooked, mashed, and dehydrated potatoes that are reconstituted by adding hot water or milk[75]XXXOXXX
Montreal-style smoked meatDeli-style cured beef, developed by Jewish-Canadian delicatessen purveyors in Montreal.XXXXOX
Newfoundland chow meinMade with cabbage instead of egg noodles, as typical.[71]O
Oreilles de crisseDeep-fried pork skin and fat.O
PastyCornish pastry dish commonly made in English Canada and served in an informal setting. Usually contains beef, potatoes, game, corn, peas, or carrots.XXXXXXO
Pâté ChinoisVariation of shepherd's pie developed by Chinese railway workers; comfort food consisting of layers of ground beef, corn, and mashed potatoes.[76]OX
PemmicanGround dried meat, fat, and berries.OX
PierogiDumplings introduced, and made ubiquitous, to the Prairies by Ukrainian and Polish immigrants. Canadian variations often include cheddar cheese.[77][78]XXXXO
PoutineFrench fries topped with cheese curds and gravy.XXXXOXX
Poutine râpéeStuffed grated potato dumpling.O
Rappie pieGrated potato and meat casserole.O
Roast beef and Yorkshire puddingTraditional Sunday dinner, reflective of Canada's British heritage.[79]XXXXXXO
Roast turkeyNorth American roasted turkey, often cooked with stuffing and eaten with gravy.XXXOXX
Sausage rollCommonwealth food commonly found throughout Canada. Typically viewed in Canada as a utilitarian snack, and can include marjoram, summer savoury, and dijon mustard.[80][81]XXXXXXXO
Thunder Bay bon bonsDeep-fried ribs.[71]O
TourtièreA meat pie made of pork and lard.XXXXOX

Pizza

Dishes by region ("O" = originating and "X" = found)
DishDescriptionPacificMountainPrairiesOntarioQuebecAtlanticNorthernInherited
Canadian pizzaTypically includes tomato sauce, mozzarella cheese, bacon and mushrooms; variations exist.XXXXXXX
Garlic fingersBaked pizza dough with cheese, garlic, and sometimes meat on top.XXXXXO
Hawaiian pizzaSignature ingredient is pineapple, and typically includes either bacon or ham; originates from Ontario, despite the name.XXXOXXX
Indian-style pizzaPunjabi-Canadian fusion pizza originating in Greater Vancouver,[37] including sauce with mixed spices and toppings such as cilantro, ginger, spinach, cauliflower, tandoori chicken, butter chicken, or paneer.[36]OXXX
Pictou County pizzaRegional variant from Nova Scotia, noted particularly for its unique sauce.O
Pizza-ghettiCombination dish consisting of pizza with a side of spaghetti.XO
Sushi pizzaFusion dish with fried rice patty as base and topped with a layer of sliced avocado, a layer of sliced salmon, tuna or crab meat, and a drizzle of blended mayonnaise and wasabi powder. Served in wedges.XXXOXX
Windsor pizzaHas a medium-thin crust, most often topped with oregano-spiked tomato sauce, mozzarella cheese produced by Galati, canned mushrooms, and sticks of shredded pepperoni. Toppings are traditionally placed overtop of the cheese. Cooked on cornmeal on stone deck ovens.[82][83]O

Seafood

Dishes by region ("O" = originating and "X" = found)
DishDescriptionPacificMountainPrairiesOntarioQuebecAtlanticNorthernInherited
B.C. rollVariety of sushi containing salmon and cucumber.OXX
California roll (Uramaki)Variety of sushi containing avocado and crab. Invented in British Columbia, despite the name.OXXXXX
Cod tongues and scrunchionsBaked cod tongue and deep fried pork fat O
Dungeness crab tacosWonton shells filled with dungeness crab, dijon mustard, and miso paste, among other ingredients. Usually topped with shaved radishes.[84][85]O
Dynamite rollVariety of sushi typically containing prawn tempura.OXXXXX
Fish and brewisSalt cod and hardtack, with pork cracklings.O
Fish cakes/ Croquettes de poissonRounds of fried cod flakes and mashed potatoes, with summer savouryO
Flipper piePie made with harp seal flipper.O
Fried walleyeBattered, tempura-like walleye fish fried in cooking oil, often containing garlic.[86][87] Canada is the only commercial source of walleye and is mostly fished from Lake Erie, Lake Winnipeg, and Lake of the Woods, among other large Canadian lakes.[88]XO
Hot-smoked salmon sandwichWild smoked salmon, maple mustard coleslaw and spicy sriracha mayonnaise layered in between a ciabatta bun.[89]O
Lobster rollLobster meat mixed with mayonnaise and served in a toasted hot dog bun.XXO
MuktukDiced whale skin and blubber, commonly made from bowhead whale.XXO
Pâté au saumonCrusted meat pie containing mashed potatoes, cooked salmon, and various spices and herbs.[90]O
Pacific smoked salmonSmoked chinook, sockeye, coho, or pink salmon, commonly prepared on a cedar, alder, or hickory board. Often glazed with honey, maple, or sugar (candied salmon), and may also be dehydrated to create jerky.OX
Smoked goldeyeWinnipeg goldeye (freshwater fish) marinated in brine, lightly dried and smoked over oak, hickory, apple, or cherry wood fire.[91]OX
Teriyaki salmonSalmon pieces pan-fried in a mixture of butter, honey, soy sauce, garlic and ginger.[89]O
White sturgeon caviarMedium-sized, firm, and dark caviar with a buttery and nutty flavour. Often served with a protein, bread, or dairy product, such as fish, blinis, or crème fraîche.[92]O

Soups and stews

Dishes by region ("O" = originating and "X" = found)
DishDescriptionPacificMountainPrairiesOntarioQuebecAtlanticNorthernInherited
Atlantic/Maritime seafood chowderAlso referred to as "Nova Scotia" or "Fundy" seafood chowder. Contains a variety of Atlantic seafood ingredients, such as haddock, lobster, scallops, shrimp and/or clams. May also contain bacon, potatoes, carrots, onions, pepper, salt, dill and chives. Dairy may be 35% heavy cream, whipping cream, half-and-half, or canned milk.[93][94][95]O
Bologna stewA stew made of cubed chunks of Bologna sausage O
Caribou stewTraditional Nunavummiut stew made with a combination of boneless caribou cubes, onions, celery, red wine, tomato paste, bay leaves, thyme, potatoes, carrots, turnips, beef stock, oil, salt, and pepper. Lengthy simmering is required to tenderize all ingredients.[96]O
Doukhobour-Canadian borschtA vegetarian borscht distinguished by its orange colour. Contains cream, mashed potatoes, dill, and often beets.[84]XOX
FricotConsists of potatoes, onions, and a protein (such as chicken, clams, rabbit, beef, or pork), stewed and topped with dumplings.O
Hodge PodgeNova Scotian version of the Scottish stew, consisting of potatoes, beans, peas, and/or carrots, cooked in milk broth.O
Soupe aux gourganesSoup in which the primary ingredient is fava beans. Consists of beef broth, bacon, pearl barley, carrots, fat cabbage, tomato, vermicelli, savoury and chives.O
West Coast fish chowderCreamy soup from Vancouver Island containing candied salmon and rockfish.[97]O
Yellow pea soupFrench-Canadian comfort food prepared with yellow peas, salted pork, and fresh herbs.[98] Often served with johnnycake in Anglophone areas.XXOX

Pastries and desserts

There is an abundance of unique pastries and desserts that originate from Canada, as accounted for in the list below. Over twenty-one hundred bakery product manufacturing establishments, and more than twelve hundred retail bakeries, operate in the country.[99] Tim Hortons, a Canadian restaurant chain that specialized in baked goods, maintains the highest number of franchises in the country.[100]

Confection

Pie

Cheese

Balderson "Royal Canadian Cheddar". Canadian cheddar is a particularly smooth and creamy cheddar cheese that holds a balance between flavour and sharpness.[111]
Oka cheese was originally manufactured in the Trappists monasteries of Oka, Quebec and Holland, Manitoba

Dairy products became prominent among Central Canadian producers in the 1860s. Ontario's first cheese factory opened in 1863, and by the end of the decade, they had expanded to over two-hundred. The 1860s also saw to the start of a shift from wheat production to dairy and livestock in Quebec, which would become the dominant agricultural sector in the province by the early 20th century. Cream and cheese factory production would begin to increase exponentially in both Central and Eastern Canada by the 1880s.[112]

Canada is currently the 12th largest producer of cheese by tonnage,[113] and is considered to be one of the major cheese-producing countries.[114] Canadian cheese is mostly "firm", with cheddar and mozzarella being the most produced varieties in 2020.[114] Among Canadians, specialty cheese (such as cream cheese, cottage cheese, and parmesan) is the most popular type, with cheddar being the second-most.[114] The list given below, taken from an international database of cheese varieties,[115] is an account of over one-hundred Canadian cheeses:

  • ADL brick cheese
  • ADL mild cheddar
  • Alpine gold
  • Amsterdammer
  • Avonlea clothbound cheddar
  • Baluchon
  • Beemster 2% milk
  • Belle creme
  • Bleu bénédictin
  • Bleubry
  • Bleu l'ermite
  • Blissful blocks
  • Blissful toppings
  • Blue benedictine
  • Boivin extra aged cheddar
  • Boivin marbled cheddar
  • Boivin medium cheddar
  • Bootlegger
  • Bothwell black truffle cheddar
  • Brebis d'azure
  • Brie coco
  • Brie d'alexis
  • Brie de portneuf
  • Brie de portneauf double cream
  • Brise du matin
  • Camembert de portneuf
  • Camembert des camarades
  • Canadian cheddar
  • Cap cressy
  • Cape vessey
  • Caprano
  • Captri blu
  • Caprice
  • Capriny
  • Caronzola
  • Castle blue[116]
  • Cendré des prés
  • Château de vrsailles
  • Cheese curds
  • Chèvre des neiges
  • Comox Brie[117]
  • Comox camembert
  • Comtomme
  • Country Sheep... and Goats...
  • Country morning
  • Cream cheesy bliss
  • Cressy blue
  • Doré-mi
  • Dragon's breath blue
  • Farm house clothbound cheddar
  • Fellowship Too
  • Fermiere
  • Fou du roy
  • Fox hill parmesan
  • Garlic and fine herbs cashew cheese
  • Gloucester goat
  • Goat fromage blac
  • Gracie grey
  • Grey owl
  • Hand rolled chevre logs
  • Hayloft
  • Holiday brie
  • Isabirra
  • Island bries
  • Kabritt[118]
  • La bonaparte
  • Lacey grey
  • Lady jane
  • La pyramide
  • La rumeur
  • La sauvagine
  • La sauvagine réserve
  • Le cendrillon Le double joie
  • Lemon fetish
  • Le moutier
  • L'empereur
  • Le reflect de portneauf
  • Les calendos
  • Le st-raymond
  • L'étoile de st-raymond
  • Little qualicum raclette
  • Lost lake
  • Lunetta
  • Mamirolle
  • Météorite
  • Monastery cheeses
  • Mont st-benoît
  • Noyan
  • Okanagan double cream camembert
  • Operetta
  • Pacific rock
  • Paillot de chèvre
  • Peau rouge
  • Pied-de-vent
  • Pizy
  • Purple's a must
  • Raw brie style cashew cheese
  • Richelieu
  • Saanen silk
  • Saint-honoré
  • Shredded bluss
  • Slice of bliss
  • Smokey jalapeño
  • St-fidèle swiss
  • Strawberry moon
  • Sun dried tomato and basil cashew cheese
  • Waupoos lizzie[115]

Commercially-prepared food, condiments and beverages

Alcohol

Bottle of 12-year Canadian whisky

Canada is considered one of the top whisky-producing countries, and is most renowned for rye whisky.[144] Regulation states that Canadian whisky must age for a minimum of three years and be kept in oak barrels.[144] Canada houses about thirty whisky distilleries across the country, and produces 54.2 million liters.[145] Canadian whisky is noted for its light and smooth style, and though most of it is blended,[145] single-malt and 100% rye are some of the country's most desired.[146] The Glenora Inn & Distillery is the only single-malt distillery in North America.[146]

Canada's wine industry is over two-hundred years old and includes the wine regions of British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec, and Nova Scotia.[147] Canada's first commercial vineyard, the Pelee Island Winery, was established in 1866. There are currently over eight-hundred licensed wineries in the country, with the most recognized wine-producing areas being southern Ontario (most notably the Niagara peninsula), and the Okanagan valley of British Columbia.[148]

Straight

Mixes

The "Caesar" is a uniquely Canadian cocktail, invented in Calgary

Street food

"Terimayo" from the Japadog street cart on Burrard Street and Smithe, Vancouver

While most major cities in Canada offer a variety of street food, each region has specialties which reflect local cultural influences. Montreal food trucks offer shish taouk, the Montreal hot dog, and dollar falafels. Although falafel is available in Vancouver, East Asian-influenced offerings are much more widespread, including sushi, samosas, Vietnamese banh mi subs or Pho soup, Filipino offerings, and various Japanese and Chinese cuisines. In Victoria, British Columbia, vegan and vegetarian burgers are common, as are various seafood take-aways and Mexican-influenced street food. Since 2007, Toronto has encouraged vendors to sell street food from a wider variety of cuisines.[154]

In Western Canada, a version of the Ukrainian garlic-pork sausage, referred to as "Kubasa" (a corruption of the Ukrainian sausage "Kobasa")[155] is widely available and celebrated.[156] The term "smokies" or "smokeys" may refer to Kubasa rather than frankfurters.

Fusion cultural foods are constantly evolving, such as the Japadog, which tops a hot dog with traditional Japanese ingredients, such as wasabi, teriyaki, shredded daikon radish, or bonito (fish) flakes. Pizza slices are a common street offering. Shawarma is quite prevalent in Ottawa and Windsor, while Halifax offers its own unique version of the döner kebab called the donair, which features a distinctive sauce made from condensed milk, sugar, garlic and vinegar. Ice cream trucks can be seen (and often heard due to a jingle being broadcast on loudspeakers) nationwide during the summer months. Winnipeg has a particularly famous line-up of food truck vendors on Main Street.

Street food markets

Various street food markets exist across the country. Metro Vancouver offers the "Richmond Night Market", with over two-hundred retail stalls offering predominantly East Asian-inspired food, such as grilled octopus, takoyaki, dumplings, fish sticks, and taiyaki.[157] As well, there is the "Shipyards Night Market" in North Vancouver, which is more varied in its offerings and provides more than thirty-five food trucks per week over the course of its annual run.[157]

In Alberta, notable street food markets include the "Calgary Night Market", as well as the "Calgary Stampede Night Market", and Edmonton's "What the Truck?".[157] The Greater Toronto Area runs "Market 707", "Adelaide Eats", and "Night It Up!".[157] Market 707 on Dundas Street is of particular aesthetic note given that it is formed out of refurbished shipping containers.[157] Eastern Canada also maintains several street food markets of note, including Montreal's "First Fridays" and Halifax's "Trusk-Side".[157]

National food of Canada

Maple syrup is widely recognized as emblematic of Canada, both internationally and within the country itself

Though finding consensus among Canadians in determining a national food or dish can prove difficult, there are nonetheless several items broadly recognized as being representative of Canada's national cuisine. Foods typically considered national dishes of Canada include poutine[158][159][160][161] and butter tarts.[162][163] Canadian back or peameal bacon, as well as Atlantic or Pacific salmon, are also commonly thought of as representative of Canada.[164]

Published by the Statista Research Department, a June 2015 poll asked Canadians, "If Canada were to identify one of the following as official national food, which should it be?" The results revealed Canadian bacon to be the top choice, followed by poutine:[164]

  1. Canadian bacon (35%)
  2. Poutine (30%)
  3. Atlantic or Pacific salmon (17%)
  4. Beavertail (8%)
  5. Tourtiere (6%)
  6. Doughnut (4%)

CanCulture Magazine conducted a 2021 social media poll that sampled from fifty-five Canadians given ten choices. The poll revealed the following results:[165]

  1. Poutine (38.9%)
  2. Maple syrup (25.9%)
  3. BeaverTails (9.3%)
  4. Peameal bacon and Timbits (7.4% each)

According to an informal survey by The Globe and Mail conducted through Facebook from collected comments, users considered the following to be the Canadian national dish, with maple syrup likely above all the other foods if it were considered:[161]

  1. Poutine (51%)
  2. Montreal-style bagels (14%)
  3. Salmon jerky (dried smoked salmon) (11%)
  4. Pierogi/Perogy (10%)
  5. Ketchup chips (7%)
  6. Nova Scotian donair (4%)
  7. California roll (1%)

Canada's most "iconic" foods were named in a survey conducted by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, in the summer of 2012, as:[166]

  1. Maple syrup
  2. Poutine
  3. Nanaimo bars, smoked salmon and butter tarts

In 2020, Hayley Simpson[167] identified the "best signature Canadian dishes" as poutine, Nanaimo bars, butter tarts, beavertails, tourtière, pea soup, Halifax donair, Saskatoon berry pie, and Montreal-style bagels. The following year, Reader's Digest published an article[168] similarly listing "10 Must-Try Canadian Dishes" as poutine, Canadian bacon, caesar, beavertails, Canadian pizza, butter tarts, Nanaimo bars, split pea soup, tourtière, and ketchup (namely "ketchup" chips).

Meal formats

Coffee from Pronto Café in Vancouver. Canada is the 10th largest consumer of coffee in the world, consuming more coffee per capita than any other English-speaking country.[169]

As in other countries, Canadian meals are commonly segmented accordingly to their suitability for the time of day.

Breakfast takes place in the morning and typically consists of a variety of foods, such as toast, biscuits, muffins, scones, pancakes, bacon, bagels, cereals, fruit and eggs, among others. Breakfast condiments are very common and can often include an assortment of jam, cream cheese, peanut butter, marmalade, or nutella. Typical drinks include water, juice, coffee, and tea. Breakfast traditionally occurs before work or school on weekdays, or otherwise soon after waking up in the morning. An archetypal French-Canadian meal may contain more starch-based material, while an English-Canadian meal might consist of more protein.[170]

  • Lumberjack's breakfast, aka logger's breakfast, aka "The Lumby"—a gargantuan breakfast of three-plus eggs, rations of ham, bacon and sausages, and several large pancakes. This was invented by hotelier J. Houston c.1870, at his Granville Hotel on Water Street in old pre-railway Gastown, Vancouver, in response to requests from his clientele for a better "feed" at the start of a long, hard day of work.[171][172]

Coffee customarily refers to a small meal during a break from labour. This involves the consumption of a snack that, although it is the typical drink of choice (hence the name), may or may not include coffee. The Canada Labour Code requires employers to provide 30-minute breaks for every five consecutive hours of work.[173]

Lunch generally takes place around noon. Sandwiches, soups, fruit, nuts, cheese and a variety of snacks are common foods during this meal. Lunches are usually compact, utilitarian, and/or casual, particularly given that they are often eaten at work, school, or otherwise outside of the home.[170]

Dinner usually takes place from anywhere between 17:00 to 19:00, and tend to be heartier affairs based around protein and vegetables. Local flora and fauna are most fully realized during dinner; in the Maritimes, dinner may be more likely to include fish, while the Prairies might include more beef.[170]

  • Sunday dinner in Canada is commonly observed as a more formal affair than typical dinners, often involving family and/or guests, and a more thoroughly prepared meal. Roast beef is a common centerpiece,[174] but particular specialties also vary by region, such as traditional Prairie pot roast[175] and Newfoundland Jiggs Dinner.[176]

Occasions

The annual pancake breakfast at the Chinook Centre in Calgary feeds over 60,000 in one day.

Food festivals

Various food festivals take place annually across Canada and in accordance with seasonality, often in celebration of a local culinary tradition or industry. The list below is a selection of food festivals by region (giving their location and standard month(s) of occurrence), and is not exhaustive.

British Columbia

Prairies

Folklorama UK Pavilion on King Edward St., Winnipeg

Ontario

Elmira Maple Syrup Festival, 2014

Quebec

Montréal en Lumière, 2014

Maritimes

North

Livestock breeds and cultivars

"Marquis" wheat (left) compared to "Preston". The Marquis variety made a marked improvement in maturation speed, harvest efficiency, and winter resilience, and became the basis for all future major wheat strains in Canada.[112]

While an abundance of livestock breeds and crops originating from other countries are grown and raised in Canada, there is also a variety of unique breeds and cultivars that have been developed domestically. Below is a selection of various livestock breeds and cultivars that originate from Canada.

Apples

The "Aurora Golden Gala" was created in Summerland, British Columbia at the Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre

Due to an influx of grain from the Prairies into British Columbia during the late 19th century, via the advent of the Canadian rail network, the province's grain production became largely redundant. This allowed for the development of specialized produce industries, such as fruit in the Okanagan. As a result, many of Canada's unique apple varieties have been developed in the interior of British Columbia.[112]

Beans

Cattle

The "Speckle Park" breed of beef cattle was developed in Saskatchewan by cross-breeding the Aberdeen Angus and Shorthorn. The "speckled" pattern for which it is named is derived from a single progenitor bull with the colour-pointed markings of the White Park.[199]

Cherries

The "Stella cherry" is the first self-fertile sweet cherry to be named[201] and was awarded the Award of Garden Merit by the Royal Horticultural Society.[202]

Pigs

Potatoes

The "Yukon Gold" potato was developed at the University of Guelph

There are over sixty potato varieties that originate from Canada. Many of these were developed by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, largely in New Brunswick, but also in Alberta, Newfoundland, Ontario, and Quebec.[204] The following is a small sampling of Canadian potatoes:

Poultry

Sheep

"Canadian Arcott" sheep, as well as the "Rideau" and "Outaouais" Arcotts, were developed at the Animal Research Centre in Ottawa, of which the word "Arcott" is an acronym for.[215]

Strawberries

Other berries

Other breeds and cultivars

"Red Fife" wheat is named after the colour of its kernel and the Peterborough farmer who developed it, Dave Fife.

See also

References

  1. Jacobs, H. (2009). Structural Elements in Canadian Cuisine. Cuizine, 2(1), 0–0. https://doi.org/10.7202/039510ar
  2. Newman, Lenore; Elton, Sarah (2016). Speaking in cod tongues : a Canadian culinary journey. Regina, Saskatchewan. ISBN 978-0-88977-466-7. OCLC 959691772.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  3. Pandi, George (April 5, 2008), "Let's eat Canadian, but is there really a national dish?", The Gazette (Montreal), archived from the original on August 23, 2012, retrieved March 31, 2011 Also published as "Canadian cuisine a smorgasbord of regional flavours"
  4. "What are the common cooking methods used in Canada?". Retrieved 26 April 2022. Fist Law Comic
  5. Jacobs, Hersch (2009), "Structural Elements in Canadian Cuisine", Cuizine: The Journal of Canadian Food Cultures, 2 (1)
  6. Newman, Lenore (2017). Speaking in Cod Tongues: A Canadian Culinary Journey. Regina: University of Regina Press. ISBN 978-0889774599.
  7. "Canadian Food - What to Know and Eat". Retrieved 26 April 2022. Back Roads
  8. Sicotte, Geneviève (December 18, 2021). "Poutine in a pie: Would you eat a 'tourtine' this holiday season?". FreshHive.ca. Retrieved April 15, 2022.
  9. "Canadian Food - What to Know and Eat". Retrieved 26 April 2022. Back Roads
  10. "Maple Syrup." Archived September 8, 2011, at the Wayback Machine Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. Accessed July 2011.
  11. Koelling, Melvin R; Laing, Fred; Taylor, Fred (1996). "Chapter 2: History of Maple Syrup and Sugar Production". In Koelling, Melvin R; Heiligmann, Randall B (eds.). North American Maple Syrup Producers Manual. Bulletin. Vol. 856. Ohio State University. Archived from the original on April 29, 2006. Retrieved September 20, 2010.
  12. Fournier, Ariel (February 1, 2019). "'Grandaddy' of jerky: traditional Indigenous dry meat hits the global market". CBC. CBC News. Retrieved February 2, 2019.
  13. merriam-webster.com Retrieved June 21, 2011.
  14. Blackstock, Michael D. "Bannock Awareness". Government of British Columbia. Retrieved October 18, 2008.
  15. EFRON, SARAH (July 17, 2012), "Bannock tacos, fried baloney – this is aboriginal cuisine?", The Globe and Mail
  16. "Nova Scotia Food Profiles: Oatcakes". January 17, 2017. Eat This Town
  17. Encyclopædia Britannica (Chicago, 1967), Vol. 4, 557
  18. Dorothy Duncan (2011) Canadians at Table: A Culinary History of Canada. Dundurn Toronto.
  19. Eric D. Tourigny Tourigny, Eric D. (2020). "Maintaining Traditions: Food and Identity among Early Immigrants to Upper Canada". Historical Archaeology. 54 (2): 354–374. doi:10.1007/s41636-020-00237-5. PMC 7346977. PMID 32669754. Historical Archaeology
  20. Craig Heron, BOOZE (Toronto: Between the Lines, 2003), 28.
  21. Dorothy Duncan (2011) Canadians at Table: A Culinary History of Canada. (Dundurn Toronto), 84
  22. Dorothy Duncan (2011) Canadians at Table: A Culinary History of Canada. (Dundurn Toronto), 85
  23. Dorothy Duncan (2011) Canadians at Table: A Culinary History of Canada. (Dundurn Toronto), 87, 88
  24. Dorothy Duncan (2011) Canadians at Table: A Culinary History of Canada. (Dundurn Toronto), 85, 89
  25. Dorothy Duncan (2011) Canadians at Table: A Culinary History of Canada. (Dundurn Toronto)
  26. Tom Shingler "Culture club: the story of Canadian cuisine".
  27. Wingrove, Josh (April 30, 2013). "The Chinese restaurant as a Prairie icon". The Globe and Mail.
  28. Wei, Jessica (September 14, 2015). "Only in Montreal: Peanut Butter Dumplings". Saveur. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
  29. "These dishes from Chinese restaurants are uniquely Canadian. Is your favourite on the list? | CBC Radio". CBC News. July 1, 2019. Archived from the original on April 22, 2023.
  30. Latimer, Kim (February 2016). "Birth of the Bon Bon — Thunder Bay's One and Only Bon Bon Spare Rib". The Walleye — Thunder Bay's Arts & Culture Magazine. Retrieved April 12, 2019.
  31. Sundarsingh, Alexandra (September 6, 2017). "Indian Food in Canada". The Canadian Encyclopedia.
  32. Walton-Roberts, Margaret. 1998. "Three Readings of the Turban: Sikh Identity in Greater Vancouver" (Archive). In Urban Geography, Vol. 19: 4, June. - DOI 10.2747/0272-3638.19.4.311 - Available at Academia.edu and at ResearchGate. p. 316.
  33. Doss, Suresh (June 20, 2020). "Gandhi Roti created what might be Toronto's signature dish. Now chef Avtar Singh is hanging up his apron". CBC News.
  34. Liu, Karon (August 13, 2019). "How butter chicken roti became a Toronto classic". The Toronto Star. Retrieved March 18, 2021.
  35. Liu, Karon (August 13, 2019). "How butter chicken roti became a Toronto classic". Toronto Star.
  36. Caruk, Holly (October 27, 2021). "Indian-style pizzas heating up Winnipeg's food scene". CBC. Retrieved December 28, 2021.
  37. "Jagjit Sanghera's slice of success with Pizza Factory". January 2, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2022.
  38. "Best Indian-style pizza in Vancouver". Daily Hive. October 27, 2020. Retrieved December 28, 2021.
  39. Singh, Manisha (October 26, 2021). "Best Indian-style pizza in Surrey you need to try once". Daily Hive. Retrieved December 28, 2021.
  40. Agnihotri, Peeyush (December 3, 2015). "Quadriplegic Kiran Dhaliwal mixes cultures up at her Calgary pizza shop". Canadian Immigrant. Retrieved December 28, 2021.
  41. McLean, Elle (April 28, 2021). "All the restaurants participating in La Pizza Week Edmonton". Daily Hive. Retrieved December 28, 2021.
  42. "Da Pizza "n" Curry Express leading Regina's fusion food scene". CBC. February 2, 2016. Retrieved April 28, 2022.
  43. Hum, Peter (January 18, 2021). "Dining In: Where have you been all my life, French tacos, Indian pizza and Korean corn dogs?". Ottawa Citizen. Retrieved December 28, 2021.
  44. Doradea, Karen (November 4, 2021). "Where to find the best Indian-style pizza in and around Toronto". Daily Hive. Retrieved December 28, 2021.
  45. Nanwa, Nav (March 28, 2022). "Brampton pizza: Why ordering 'Indian-style' might become a bigger thing in Canada". CBC. Retrieved April 28, 2022.
  46. ROTSZTAIN, DANIEL (October 9, 2015). "Meet Toronto's new masters of the pizza". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved August 23, 2016.
  47. "COD TONGUES (TRADITIONAL NEWFOUNDLAND RECIPE)". August 8, 2019. Retrieved 26 April 2022. Girl Heart Food
  48. Karen Anderson (2021) "Alberta's 7 Signature Foods". Visit Calgary.
  49. Rheanna Kish (30 November 2011) Caribou Stew, November 30, 2011 Canadian Living
  50. Bakeapple Pie Taste Atlas
  51. "Iconic Foods of Canada: Nova Scotia". April 23, 2017. Eat This Town
  52. Dulse, the food from the sea that wasn't seafood CBC Archives
  53. Boiled Fiddleheads Taste Atlas
  54. "Managing the resource". October 13, 2019. Retrieved 22 April 2022. Geoduck Underwater Harvesters Association
  55. "Geoduck". Retrieved 22 April 2022. Taste Atlas
  56. "Iconic Foods of Canada: British Columbia". August 24, 2017. East This Town.
  57. "Iconic Foods of Canada: British Columbia". August 24, 2017. Eat This Town
  58. Jan Schroeder and Christopher Wiebe (2011) "Sausage special: A couple's quest for the perfect prairie sausage". February 24, 2016. Canadian Geographic
  59. "Kubie Burger". Retrieved 21 April 2022. Taste Atlas
  60. "Answers - The Most Trusted Place for Answering Life's Questions". Answers.com.
  61. "Fisheries and Aquaculture in Canada" (PDF). Retrieved 27 April 2022. OECD
  62. "Aquaculture statistics". January 12, 2013. Retrieved 27 April 2022. Government of Canada
  63. "Alberta has the most beef cattle in Canada and the second largest total farm area". May 10, 2017. Statistics Canada
  64. "Alberta's 7 Signature Foods". Visit Calgary
  65. "Beef Cattle Farming". Canadian Encyclopedia
  66. "Saskatchewan remains the breadbasket of Canada". May 10, 2017. Statistics Canada
  67. "Condiment Crops". The Canadian Encyclopedia
  68. "Old-Fashioned Johnny Cake". April 9, 2021. Seasons & Suppers. Retrieved 20 March 2022
  69. "Pancakes with Maple Syrup". taste atlas Retrieved 3 April 2022
  70. "Canadian Pancakes". April 4, 2020. RecipeLibrary.net Retrieved 3 April 2022
  71. "These dishes from Chinese restaurants are uniquely Canadian. Is your favourite on the list?". Retrieved 18 August 2022. CBC
  72. "Here's What Was On The Menu At The Classic Zellers Diners In Canada". January 28, 2020.
  73. "Jellied Moose Nose". Retrieved 21 April 2022. Taste Atlas
  74. "Maple Slaw". Retrieved 21 April 2022. Taste Atlas
  75. "10 famous foods you didn't know were invented in Canada". February 16, 2021. Retrieved 20 April 2022. Curiocity
  76. "Pâté Chinois". Retrieved 27 April 2022. Taste Atlas
  77. Gabby Peyton "ICONIC CANADIAN FOOD: THE HISTORY OF THE PIEROGI". October 6, 2018.
  78. Post, Special to National (January 20, 2013). "Shelf Life: Perogies, no matter how you spell them, taste like Canada". National Post.
  79. Eds. Melanie Byrd and John P. Dunn (2020). "Canada (1800-present)". Cooking Through History: A Worldwide Encyclopedia of Food with Menus and Recipes, pg. 344
  80. Cynthia Jackson (2017) "Classic Canadian Style Sausage Rolls". June 6, 2017. Food Mack. Retrieved 20 March 2022
  81. "PUFF PASTRY SAUSAGE ROLLS". November 15, 2005. Canadian Living. Retrieved 20 March 2022
  82. "Windsor-Style Pizza". Retrieved 21 April 2022. Taste Atlas
  83. "Why Windsor-style pizza is your next regional food obsession". The Globe and Mail. December 10, 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2022. The Globe and Mail
  84. "Iconic Foods of Canada: British Columbia". August 24, 2017. Eat This Town
  85. "Dungeness Crab Tacos Recipe". July 23, 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2022. Vancouver Magazine
  86. "Best Fried Walleye". May 6, 2019. Retrieved 25 April 2022. Cook Me
  87. "Best Fried Walleye". Retrieved 25 April 2022. All Recipes
  88. "Walleye". Retrieved 25 April 2022. Seafood Source
  89. "Must-Try Cuisine from British Columbia". October 20, 2016. Retrieved 22 April 2022. Food Network
  90. "Salmon Pie". Retrieved 27 April 2022. Taste Atlas
  91. "Smoked Goldeye". Retrieved 21 April 2022. Taste Atlas
  92. "White Sturgeon Caviar". Retrieved 17 August 2022. Taste Atlas
  93. Kelly Neil (2021) "NOVA SCOTIA SEAFOOD CHOWDER". June 12, 2020. Retrieved 24 April 2022. Kelly Neil
  94. "Fish Chowder from Fundy, New Brunswick, Canada". October 22, 2018. Retrieved 24 April 2022. the fashionista cook
  95. "Mom's Nova Scotia Seafood Chowder". Retrieved 24 April 2022. allrecipes
  96. "Caribou Stew". Retrieved 21 April 2022. Taste Atlas
  97. Jenny Potter (2016), "Must-Try Cuisine from British Columbia". October 20, 2016. Food Network
  98. "Yellow Pea Soup". Retrieved 21 April 2022. Taste Atlas
  99. "Bread and bakery products in Canada - statistics & facts". Statista. Retrieved 30 March 2022
  100. Renee Bailey (2020) "The 50 Largest Franchises in Canada (2020)". Franchise Direct. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
  101. "10 Must-Try Canadian Desserts". Food Network.
  102. "Canadian Maple Donut". Tim Hortons. Retrieved 20 March 2022
  103. Tagliafierro, Angelina. "UBC Cinnamon Bun". Food.ubc.ca.
  104. Kitchen, The Canadian Living Test (April 2, 2015). "Cinnamon Buns". Canadian Living.
  105. "Helen McKinney's Canadian Prairie Homemade Cinnamon Buns". Acanadianfoodie.com. December 19, 2016.
  106. "Glazed Maple Shortbread Cookies". Little Sweet Baker. June 20, 2018.
  107. "Pine Cone Gingerbread Cookies". December 2, 2021. Seasons & Suppers. Retrieved 20 March 2022
  108. "10 Must-Try Canadian Desserts". Retrieved 28 April 2022. Food Network
  109. "Canadian Tea Biscuits". Retrieved 2022-04-29. All Recipes
  110. "Canadian Maple Syrup Sugar Pie or Tarte au sirop d'érable". July 11, 2013.
  111. "Canadian Cheddar". Cheese.com. Retrieved 6 April 2022
  112. "History of Agriculture: Evolution of Canadian Agriculture Since Confederation". Farms.com. Retrieved 16 April 2022
  113. "World Cheese Production by Country". Atlas Big. Retrieved 19 March 2022
  114. "Cheese market in Canada- statistics & facts". Statista Retrieved 19 March 2022
  115. "Cheeses By Country (Canada)". Cheese.com. Retrieved 19 March 2022
  116. "Castle Blue". Retrieved 22 April 2022. Taste Atlas
  117. "Comox Brie". Retrieved 22 April 2022. Taste Atlas
  118. "Kabritt". Retrieved 22 April 2022. Taste Atlas
  119. "Canadian Made Baby Food". Made in Canada Directory Retrieved 4 April 2022
  120. "Our history". www.sickkids.ca.
  121. "Our Brands". Canada Bread. Retrieved 3 April 2022
  122. "Eat-More Candy Bar". Candyfunhouse.ca.
  123. "Homemade Eatmore Bars". Domestic Dreamboat. December 10, 2015.
  124. "Smarties". madewithnestle.ca. June 28, 2018.
  125. "American Smarties vs. Canadian Smarties". Torontomike.com. March 24, 2011.
  126. "Food Fight: U.K. vs. Canadian Smarties candy". NEAROF. July 1, 2013. Retrieved February 28, 2019.
  127. "CuriousTaste". curioustastemtl.com.
  128. "Templeman's Toffee Canada". Retrieved 30 March 2022.
  129. "Two Brothers Toffee". Retrieved 30 March 2022
  130. "Shreddies Original". March 15, 2023. Retrieved 23 April 2022. Shreddies
  131. "Canadian Cereal". Made in Canada Directory. Retrieved 3 April 2022
  132. https://www.kelloggs.ca/en_CA/brands/vector-consumer-brand.html
  133. Bernard, Kristine (January 5, 2018). "Top 10 Coffee Consuming Nations". Worldatlas.com. Quebec, Canada: World Atlas. Retrieved October 29, 2019.
  134. "Canadian Coffee". Food. Retrieved 25 March 2022
  135. "Canadian-Style Irish Coffee". Food Network. Retrieved 25 March 2022
  136. Sumit Malhotra (2020) "Canadian Coffee - A Wonderful Coffee Recipe". June 23, 2020. Go Sum It Up. Retrieved 25 March 2022
  137. "Canadian Coffee". J.P. Wiser. Retrieved 25 March 2022
  138. "Maple Butter". Retrieved 17 August 2022. Taste Atlas
  139. Kitchen Daily (2012) "The History of Peanut Butter". January 23, 2012. Retrieved 20 April 2022. Huffpost
  140. "A&W celebrating 50 years in Canada". Vancouver Province. Canada.com. June 6, 2006. Archived from the original on November 16, 2014. Retrieved October 26, 2014.
  141. "Our Brands". Lactalis Canada. Retrieved 3 April 2022
  142. "Western Family Lowest Price Guaranteed". western family. Retrieved 3 April 2022
  143. "Our Tea". Retrieved 27 April 2022. Westholme Tea Company
  144. "Top 10 Whisky Producing Countries in the World". Insider Monkey. Retrieved 22 March 2022
  145. "Top Whiskey Producing Countries of the World". USA Spirit Ratings. Retrieved 22 March 2022
  146. "5 Countries You Need to Visit If You Are A True Whisky Lover". Tripoto. Retrieved 22 March 2022
  147. "Wine map of Canada". Retrieved 22 April 2022. Vineyards.com
  148. "Canada's Wineries". Retrieved 22 April 2022. Wines of Canada
  149. "Canada's first true sake winery is hidden on Vancouver's Granville Island". May 19, 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2022. Curiocity
  150. "Our Craft". Retrieved 22 April 2022. Artisan Sake Maker
  151. "Calgary's Bloody Caesar hailed as nation's favourite cocktail". CBC News Calgary. May 13, 2009. Archived from the original on May 31, 2013. Retrieved December 14, 2015.
  152. Monica Carbonell (2018) "Canadian Blueberry Sour". January 26, 2018. Liquid Culture.
  153. "Street Food". Toronto Food Policy Council. Retrieved February 28, 2019.
  154. "Ukrainian Baked Sauerkraut (Kapusta) with Sausage (Kobasa)". Rusnak.ca.
  155. "Mundare Attractions Giant Kubasa Photos for". Mundare.ca.
  156. Hayley Simpson (2017) "The Best Street Food Markets in Canada". May 2, 2017. Culture Trip. Retrieved 4 April 2022
  157. Trillin, Calvin (November 23, 2009), "Canadian Journal, "Funny Food,"", The New Yorker, pp. 68–70
  158. Wong, Grace (October 2, 2010), Canada's national dish: 740 calories -- and worth every bite?, CNN, archived from the original on January 30, 2011, retrieved May 22, 2011
  159. Sufrin, Jon (April 22, 2010), "Is poutine Canada's national food? Two arguments for, two against", Toronto Life, archived from the original on March 22, 2011
  160. Allemang, John (July 3, 2010), "We like our symbols rooted in the past, and in Quebec", The Globe and Mail
  161. Baird, Elizabeth (June 30, 2009), "Does Canada Have a National Dish?", Canadian Living
  162. DeMONTIS, RITA (June 21, 2010), "Canadians butter up to this tart", Toronto Sun
  163. "Canada: If Canada were to identify one of the following as official national food, which should it be?". Statista. Retrieved 20 March 2022
  164. Kaitlyn Stock (2021) "What do Canadians consider their national dish?". November 14, 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2022. CanCulture Magazine
  165. O'Neil, Lauren (June 28, 2012), The CBC Community chooses Canada's most iconic food, CBC
  166. Hayley Simpson (2020) "The Best Signature Canadian Dishes and Where to Try Them". October 10, 2014. Retrieved 19 April 2022. The Culture Trip
  167. Elianna Lev (2021) "10 Must-Try Canadian Dishes (and the Best Places to Find Them)". Retrieved 19 April 2022. Reader's Digest Canada
  168. "Top 10 Coffee Consuming Countries". August 6, 2020. World Atlas. Retrieved 16 March 2022
  169. "Canadian Mealtimes". Angloinfo
  170. From Milltown to Metropolis, Alan Morley
  171. Early Vancouver, J.S. Skitt Matthews
  172. "30 minute breaks – Canada Labour Code, part III – Division I - 802-1-IPG-100". January 27, 2022. Government of Canada. Retrieved 16 March 2022.
  173. "CLASSIC ROAST BEEF WITH GRAVY RECIPE". September 6, 2016. Canadian Living. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  174. Valerie Lugonja (2013) "TRADITIONAL CANADIAN PRAIRIE POT ROAST". October 21, 2013. A Canadian Foodie. Retrieved 4 April 2022
  175. "Jiggs' Dinner for Beginners". Newfoundland Labrador. Retrieved 4 April 2022
  176. Katelyn Marchyshyn (2020) "Canadian DYK: The concept of the Chinese buffet restaurant started in Vancouver". June 29, 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2022. Eat North
  177. "Christmas in Canada". Canadian Encyclopedia
  178. Erin McGann (2021) "Christmas Food in Canada, Germany and the UK". December 10, 2019. Lingoda
  179. "Great Canadian Christmas Desserts". December 6, 2017. Food Network
  180. "Potlatch". Retrieved 26 April 2022. Encyclopedia
  181. Sandra MacGregor (2019) "Canada's Best Summer Food and Drink Festivals". Forbes. Forbes. Retrieved 20 March 2022
  182. Siobhan McClelland (2012) "Ten Best Canadian Food Festivals". Canadian Geographic. Retrieved 20 March 2022
  183. "About Surrey Fusion Festival". surreyfusionfestival.ca. Food has always been a major highlight of the festival, as organizers work with local cultural community groups to run pavilions that sell authentic cuisine to attendees. The festival offered food from 45 different cultures in 2019. Retrieved 6 April 2022
  184. "10 Food Festivals In Canada For Those Who Love Food And Festivals!". December 2, 2021. Travel Triangle. Retrieved 20 March 2022
  185. "7 Awesome Canadian Food Festivals". August 6, 2015. MapQuest Travel. Retrieved 20 March 2022
  186. "Battleford Apple". Prairie Gardens. Retrieved 16 March 2022
  187. "Most Popular Apples in Canada". Taste Atlas
  188. "CDC Blackstrap". Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  189. "CDC Floral". Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  190. "CDC Ray". Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  191. "CDC Sol". Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  192. "CDC Sunburst". Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  193. "CDC Whitetrack". Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  194. "CDC WM-2". Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  195. "CDC WM-3". Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  196. "Majesty". Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  197. "Wolfe". Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  198. Porter, Valerie; Alderson, Lawrence; Hall, Stephen J. G.; Sponenberg, D. Phillip (2016). Mason's World Encyclopedia of Livestock Breeds and Breeding. Wallingford, UK. ISBN 978-1-84593-466-8. OCLC 948839453.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  199. "Oh Canada! A tribute to Canadian poultry breeds". July 2017. Small Farm Canada
  200. "Foundation Plant Services". fps.ucdavis.edu.
  201. "Award of Garden Merit Plants - Fruits and Vegetables" (PDF).
  202. "Saskatchewan Prairie Cherries". Taste Atlas
  203. "Canadian Potato Varieties - Descriptions". March 3, 2011. Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  204. "Abeille". March 11, 2004. Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  205. "Blue Mac". March 12, 2001. Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  206. "Carlton". January 24, 2002. Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  207. "Eramosa". December 17, 2001. Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  208. "Fundy". March 11, 2002. Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  209. "Glenwood Red". January 15, 2007. Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  210. "Island Sunshine". December 17, 2001. Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  211. "Hunter". December 17, 2001. Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  212. "AC Maple Gold". May 2, 2001. Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  213. "Pacific Russet". January 7, 2008. Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2022
  214. Fahmy, H.M. (1993). "DSL and Arcott Sheep New Canadian Breeds" (PDF). Agriculture Canada. Retrieved December 2, 2016.
  215. "Outaouais Arcott Sheep". Canadian Co-operative Wool Growers Limited. Retrieved 19 March 2022
  216. "Strawberry Varieties". April 19, 2018. Strawberry Plants. Retrieved 19 March 2022
  217. "Cavendish". Nourse Farms
  218. "Chambly". Cyber Fruit Retrieved 16 March 2022
  219. Royal Horticultural Society (2009). RHS plant finder 2009-2010. London: Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-1-4053-4176-9. OCLC 295002489.
  220. "Aurora Haskap Berry". Prairie Gardens. Retrieved 16 March 2022
  221. "Boreal Beauty Haskap Berry". Prairie Gardens. Retrieved 16 March 2022
  222. "Boreal Beast Haskap Berry". Prairie Gardens. Retrieved 16 March 2022
  223. "Boreal Blizzard Haskap Berry". Prairie Gardens. Retrieved 16 March 2022
  224. "Borealis Haskap Berry". Prairie Gardens. Retrieved 16 March 2022
  225. "Tulameen Raspberry". Raintree Nursery
  226. "Brookred Plum". Prairie Gardens. Retrieved 16 March 2022
  227. "Rheum x hybridum 'Canada Red' (Rhubarb)". Gardenia. Retrieved 16 March 2022
  228. "Canola". Statistics Canada
  229. "Harrow Crisp Pear". Food Day Canada. Retrieved 30 March 2022
  230. "Pear Varieties". BC Fruit Production Guide

Further reading

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.